Circumcision

Circumcision

Circumcision is a universal practice which is greatly influenced by cultural and religious traditions, especially of the Moslems and Jews. It is the most frequent operation on males not only in Islamic countries, but also other parts of the world. For example, in the United States of America more than one million male infants are circumcised each year. The performance of circumcision is one of the rules of cleanliness in Islam. It is reported by Abu Hurairah that the Prophet Muhammed (Peace Be Upon Him) mentioned:

Five are the acts quite akin to fitra: circumcision, shaving the pubes, cutting the nails, plucking the hair under the armpits and clipping (or shaving) the moustache (Recorded in "Sahih Muslim", "Sahih Bukhari", "Musnad Ahmed" and "Sunnah At-Tirmidhi"). The word fitra in relation to cleanliness can refer to the Sunnah of the Prophet (pbuh) with regard to this matter, and fitra also "implies an inner sense of cleanliness in man which is proof of his moral convictions and mental health".

Circumcision means removal of the foreskin of the penis.

The Islamic scholar Al-Mawardi said, "The ideal method is to remove the skin completely from the beginning of the glens, and the minimum condition is that nothing is left to cover the end of the glens". The Prophet Muhammed (pbuh) recommended performing circumcision at an early age. Al-Mawardi stated that the chosen time is the 7th day after birth, but it can be carried out up to 40 days after birth or thereafter until the age of 7 years, depending upon the health of the infant or child at the time.

There is an ongoing debate on the value of neonatal circumcision. Indeed, the position of the American Academy of Pediatrics since 1975 has been that there are no valid or absolute medical indications for routine circumcision of newborn male infants. On the other hand, the results of recent clinical and epidemiological studies are supportive of the practice of circumcision in newborn and infant males.

From a two-part study involving cohorts of 3,924 and 422,328 infants respectively Wiswell and Roscelli found a higher rate of urinary tract infection in uncircumcised compared with male circumcised infants. These investigators observed that as the circumcision frequency rate decreases, the incidence of urinary tract infections increases. Infection usually begins in the foreskin which becomes swollen and difficult to retract. A medium for bacterial growth and further spread of infection is provided by the fecal material trapped between the foreskin and glens of the penis. Such a condition probably leads to other more serious complications.

The cause for cancer of the penis is not known, but it is associated with related infections. According to current belief, cancer of the penis occurs less frequently among Muslims and Jews. Whether this is so and is a benefit of circumcision should be investigated in carefully controlled clinical studies. Foreskin complications are more common in uncircumcised children. According to the report of Herzog and Alvarez early circumcision of male infants protects them from these conditions. Proper hygienic care of the penis, which includes regular washing, will prevent some infections, but among children this is difficult to maintain and is probably not as effective as circumcision. Some conditions, such as phimosis, often lead to circumcision at a later age that could have been prevented if it had been performed earlier. The possible risk for long term urological complications in the infected, uncircumcised male infant has not been properly studied. It is known, however, that as many as 50% of male infants with urinary tract infections will subsequently reveal demonstrable radiological abnormalities. Thus, the performance of circumcision and the practice of Sunan Al-Fitra as recommended in Islam is medically beneficial and reflects the wisdom of the Islamic statements.

Today the doctors say that lack of circumcision:

• Is the biggest risk factor for heterosexually-acquired AIDS virus infection in men (8-times higher risk by itself, and even higher when lesions from STDs are added in).
• Is responsible for a 12-fold higher risk of urinary tract infections. Carries a higher risk of death in the first year of life (from complications of urinary tract infections: kidney failure, meningitis and infection of bone marrow).
• One in 900 uncircumcised men will die from cancer of the penis or require at least partial penile amputation as a result. (In contrast, penile cancer never occurs in men circumcised at birth).
• Often leads to balanitis (inflammation of the glens), phimosis (inability to retract the foreskin) and paraphimosis (constriction of the penis by a tight foreskin). Up to 18% of uncircumcised boys will develop one of these by 8 years of age, whereas all are unknown in the circumcised.
• Means problems that may result in a need for circumcision late in life: complication risk = 1 in 100 (compared with 1 in 1000 in the newborn).
• Is associated with higher incidence of cervical cancer in the female partners of uncircumcised men.

There is no evidence of any long-term psychological harm arising from circumcision. The risk of damage to the penis is extremely rare and avoidable by using a competent, experienced doctor. Surgical methods use a procedure that protects the penis during excision of the foreskin. As an alternative, for those who might prefer it, a device (PlastiBell) is in use that clamps the foreskin, which then falls off after a few days, and so eliminates the need to actually cut the foreskin off. For some, cultural or religious beliefs dictate the method.

Friday prayers

The weekly convention of Friday Congregation is the most important service and is compulsory upon every Muslim who is required to observe the other prayers and has no reasonable excuses to abstain. It falls on Friday of every week and is especially important because:

1. It is the occasion earmarked by Allah for the Muslim to express their collective devotion.
2. It is an appointment to review our spiritual accounts of the week gone by and get ready for the following week just as people do in any other business.
3. It is a convention for the Muslims to reassure themselves and confirm their religious bonds and social solidarity on moral and spiritual foundations.
4. It shows how the Muslims give preference to the call of God over and above any other concern.

This prayer of Friday is marked by these features:

1. Its time falls in the same times as that of the noon
2. It must be said in a congregation led by an Imam. No single person can offer it by himself.
3. If any person misses it, he cannot make up for it. Instead, he has to offer the noon prayer, the original prayer which this service normally replaces.
4. All kinds of normal work are allowed on Friday as on any other week day. For Muslims there is no Sabbath. They can carry on with their usual duties and activities provided they come to the congregational service in time. After the service is over, they may resume their mundane activities.
5. This Friday Prayer must be performed in a mosque, if there is one available. Otherwise, it may be said at any gathering place, e.g. homes, farms, parks, etc.
6. When the time for prayer comes, the Adhan (Ezan) is said. Then, four units of prayer are offered as Sunnah (Sunnet), individually, in a low voice as in the noon prayer. When this part is completed, the Imam stands up facing the audience and delivers his sermon (khutbah - hutbe) which is an essential part of the service. While the Imam is taking nobody should talk or pray; everyone present should take a sitting position and listen to the sermon quietly to the end.
7. The sermon (khutbah - hutbe) consists of two parts each beginning with words of praise of Allah and prayers of blessing for Prophet Muhammad. In the first part some Qur'anic passage must be recited and explained for the purpose of exhortation and admonition. At the end of the first part the Imam takes a short rest in the sitting posture, then stands up to deliver the second part of his sermon. General affairs of the Muslims may be discussed in either or both parts of the sermon. In the second part, especially, the Imam prays for the general welfare of all Muslims.
8. After that the Iqamah is made and the two obligatory units are offered under the leadership of the Imam who recites the Fatihah and the other Qur'anic passage in an audible voice. When this is done, the prayer is completed. After that two other Sunnah (Sunnet) units are offered individually in a low voice.

The earlier four and the late two Sunnah (Sunnet) units may be offered at home. Also they may be replaced with one has to make up.

Any participant in the weekly congregation or the 'Ed Prayers should do his best to be neat and tidy. Though there is no compulsory reason for a complete ablution, a bath is strongly recommended as it makes one fresher and more pleasant.

Ramadan

Fasting is also prescribed as an obligatory duty of Islam and the Muslim is obliged to fast from sunrise to sunset during the thirty days of the month of Ramadan, considered as the sultan of the twelve months. The command to fast is found in the Qur'an:

Ramadan is the (month) in which was sent down the Qur'an, as a guide to mankind, also clear (Signs) for guidance and judgment (between right and wrong). So every one of you who is present (at his home) during that month should spend it in fasting. But if any one is ill, or on a journey, the prescribed period (should be made up) by days later. Surah 2.185

The believer must declare his niyyah (niyet) before dawn each day and must abstain from all foods, liquids and other pleasures (like smoking, sex etc.) during the day. He should partake of a proper breakfast before the morning prayer. At sunset he should also break his fast as soon as he can. The fast-month ends with the sighting of the new moon heralding the month of Shawwal and the Eid festival (bayram).

Abd Allah b. Abbas reported that the Apostle of Allah, Muhammed (may peace be upon him), referring to Ramadan, declared: Do not begin to fast until you have seen the crescent and do not leave the fast until you see it, and if there are clouds, complete thirty days. (Muwatta Imam Malik, p.116).

Throughout the Muslim world this fast, although commanded only once in the Qur'an, is rigidly observed, even by those who are otherwise lax in religious observances. In conclusion it may be said that Salaah and the Ramadan fast have a greater effect on the Muslim's religious consciousness than all the other prescribed duties of Islam.

Fasting in Ramadan teaches people to get ready for the bad days (like wars, food or water shortage etc.) and makes them understand how the poor people feel when they have hunger.

After the call to the good during the Fajr prayer (just before dawn), the crier calls out twice: "Prayer is better than sleep". Then follows the actual performance of prayer itself in which anything between two or four rituals (each one known as a rak'ah - a "bowing") are performed. The worshipper begins with the qiyam, the standing posture. He raises his hands to his ears and then folds them, right over left, upon his breast. Following this is the ruku in which he bows down and places his hands on his knees, thereafter returning to the standing position. Then comes the sajdah (secde), the prostration of the whole body on the ground. This is performed twice with a brief sitting in between. He then comes back to the sitting position, the qa'dah and passes the greeting as-salaamu alaykum wa rahmatullah - "peace on you and the mercy of Allah". It is known as the taslim and it is said that the worshipper is greeting his fellow Muslims (though some say he is greeting two angels who sit on his shoulders recording his good and bad deeds).

In between these postures various expressions and passages of the Qur'an (especially the Suratul- Fatihah) are recited. These include the takbir ("Allah is Most Great"), the tahmid from the Fatiha ("Praise be to Allah"), the tahlil ( There is no god but Allah") and the tasbih ("May Allah be Glorified ). There are variations of these, for example subhaana rabbiyyal Adhiim - "Glorified be the Lord, the Most High . This fixed ritual of prayer is so rigid in Islam that there may be no departure from it and the pious Muslim will slavishly follow it day after day.

Prayer is also like a gymnastic exercise and a mechanical act, together with total submission to God of course. Before going into the mosque the worshipper must perform an ablution, washing his face, hands and feet (or, in certain circumstances, a washing of the whole body known as ghusl), the ritual of which is set out in the Qur'an:

"When you prepare for prayer, wash your faces, and your hands (and arms) to the elbows) rub your heads (with water), and (wash) your feet to the ankles. If you are in a state of ceremonial impurity, bathe your whole body". Surah 5.7. Later in the same verse it is said that the worshipper may use sand or earth, a ritual known as tayammum, where water is not available, in a desert for example.

In addition to the five daily prayers there are the tahajjud prayers, a late-night ritual practiced by Muhammad but not commanded by him, as well as tarawih prayers after the last prayer, salautal-isha, during the month of Ramadan. Furthermore on Fridays the great congregational prayer just after midday, the Juma prayer, replaces the midday prayer. In all of these the ritualistic performance of raka'at continues but, apart from these prescribed prayers, Muslims also have a more extemporaneous form of prayer, the dua. This takes the form either of set Arabic phrases or of personal devotions which may also be in Arabic or in the worshipper's language.

The times of prayer

Every Muslim, male or female, must offer at least five daily prayers in time, if is no lawful reason for exemption, combination, or temporary delay, They are:

1. The Early Morning Prayer (Salatu-l-Fajr), which may be offered any time after the dawn and before, a total period of about two hours.
2. The Noon Prayer (Salatu-z-Zuhr). This prayer may be offered anytime after the sun begins to decline from its Zenith until it is about midway on its course to setting. For example, if the sun sets at 7:00 p.m. the prayer time begins a little after 12:00 noon and continues until a little after 3:30 p.m. Soon after that the time of the next prayer begins. However, there are accurate calendars telling the time of each prayer. But if there is none available, one must resort to one's best judgment.
3. The Mid-Afternoon prayer (Salatu-l-Asr), which begins right after the expiration of the Noon prayer time and extends to sunset.
4. The sunset prayer (Salatu-l-Maghrib). The time of this prayer begins immediately after sunset and extends till the red glow in the western horizon disappears. Normally it extends over a period of one hour and twenty to thirty minutes.
5. The Evening prayer (Salatu-l-Isha), which begins after the red glow in the western horizon disappears (nearly one hour and thirty minutes after sunset) and continues till a before the dawn.

It is noticeable that Islam has set the times of prayer in such a way that our spiritual recreation remarkably coincides with our physical nourishment, and combines the peace of mind with the relaxation of body. The early Morning Prayer is due in the regular period of breakfast; the Noon Prayer coincides with the lunch period; the Mid-Afternoon Prayer falls about the break time for tea or coffee; the sunset Prayer is about the supper time; and the Evening Prayer corresponds with the late snack. It is also noticeable that the Muslim, by observing these prayers, marks the whole day with a spiritual stamp in the beginning, at the end and throughout. So he combines religion and life, feels the presence of God within him throughout the day, concludes his daily transactions with a spiritual feeling and builds up his moral prestige on strong foundations. Moreover, in this way the Muslim introduces spiritual vitality into all aspects of his life, and religion presents itself to all fields of activity. Indeed, this timetable of prayer is remarkable because it is the work of God and the product of Islam. It is always preferable to offer the prayer as soon as the time sets in, last some things cause unexpected delay or postponement. These prayers are Divine contests. The Noon (Zuhr) and the Afternoon (Asr) Prayers may be offered together, if a person is traveling, sick or pregnant. The same permission is granted with regard to the Sunset (Maghrib) and the evening (Isha) Prayers.

The partial ablution

Before offering the prayer one must be in good shape and pure condition. It is necessary to wash the parts of the body which are generally exposed to dirt or dust or smog.

1. Declare the intention that the act is for the purpose of Worship and purity.
2. Wash the hands up to the wrists three times.
3. Rinse out the mouth with water three times preferably with a brush whenever it is possible.
4. Cleanse the nostrils of the nose by sniffing water in to them three times.
5. Wash the whole face three times with both hands if possible from the top of the forehead to the bottom of the chin and from ear to ear.
6. Wash the right arm three times up to the far end of the elbow and then do the same with the left arm.
7. Wipe the whole head or any part of it with a wet hand once.
8. Wipe the inner sides of the ears with the forefingers and their outer sides with the thumbs. This should be done with wet fingers.
9. Wipe around the neck with wet hands.
10. Wash the two feet up to the ankles three times beginning with the right foot.

At this stage the ablution is completed and the person who has performed it is ready to start his prayer. When the ablution is valid a person may keep it as long as he can and may use for as many prayers as he wishes.

Nullification of the Ablution

The ablution becomes nullified by any of the following.

1. Natural discharges i.e., urine, stools, gas, etc.
2. The flow of blood or pus and the like from any part of the body.
3. Vomiting.
4. Falling asleep.
5. Losing one's reason by taking drugs or any intoxicating stuff. After the occurrence of any of these things the ablution must be renewed for prayer. Also, after natural discharges, water should be applied because the use of toilet tissues may not be sufficient for the purpose of purity and worship.

Complete substitute for the Ablution (Tayammum)

Tayammum or resort to pure earth may substitute for the ablution and even the bath. This is allowed in any of the following cases.

1. When a person is sick and cannot use water.
2. When he has no access to water in sufficient quantity.
3. When the use of water is likely to do him harm or cause any disease.
4. When the performance of ablution makes the person miss a funeral or Eed prayer which has no substitute.

In any of these instances it is permissible to make Tayammum which is performed as follows.

1. Strike both hands slightly on pure earth or sand or stone.
2. Shake the hands off and wipe the face with them once in the same way as done in the ablution.
3. Strike the hands again and wipe the right arm to the elbow with the left hand and the left arm with the right hand.

Special Facilities in Ablution

With regard to the ablution Islam has offered certain facilities. If socks or stocking are on and have been put on after performing an ablution, it is not necessary to take them off when renewing the ablution while traveling. Instead of taking them off, we wet hand and may be passed over them. They should be removed, however, and the feet washed at least once in every twenty four hours. The same practice may be restored to if the boots are on and their soles and appearance are clean. Similar a wound in any of the parts which must be washed in the ablution, and if washing that particular part is likely to cause harm, it is permissible to wipe the dressing bandage of the wound with a wet hand.

The complete Ablution (Ghusl / Bath)

The whole body with the nostrils, mouth and head must be washed by a complete bath before entering prayer in any of the following cases:

1. After intimate intercourse;
2. After wet dreams;
3. Upon expiration of the menstruation period of woman;
4. At the end of the confinement period of nursing woman, which, is estimated at a maximum of forty days. If it ends before, complete ablution should be done.

It should be pointed out that at the start of the bath or ablution the intention must be clear that it is for the purpose of purity and worship. Also, a person who is performing an ablution, partial or complete, should combine his performance with some utterances glorifying Allah and praying him for true guidance. The forms of such utterances and described in detail in the elaborate sources of the religion. One, however, can say one's own best utterances if one does not know the exact wo sufficient as long as it is in the praise of Allah and is said with sincerity.

Sufism

Sufism is a way of life in which a deeper identity is discovered and lived. This deeper identity, or essential Self, is beyond the already known personality and is in harmony with everything that exists. It has abilities of awareness, action, creativity, and love that are far beyond those of the superficial personality. Eventually it is understood that these abilities belong to a greater Being that we each individualize in our own unique way while never being separate from it.

"Since in order to speak,
one must first listen,
learn to speak by listening."

Rumi, Mathnawi (Mesnevi), I, I627

The essential Self is an objective reality, but it cannot be known in a state of sleep, any more than the ordinary facts of reality can be known in a dream. In the Sufi tradition it is written that the absolute Spirit said And I breathed My Spirit into humanity. We are each enlivened by this in-breath. The essential Self, the soul, can be understood as this individualization of Spirit. The soul, however, is such a fine and subtle energy that it can be obscured by coarser energies of our existence, the energies of thought, desire, instinct, and sensation. These are the veils over the essential Self, the substances of intoxication that numb us to our essential Self.

If your thought is a rose,
you are a rose garden;
if it is a thorn,
you are fuel for the bath stove.

Rumi, Mathnawi (Mesnevi), II, 278

In classical Sufism the continuum from the false self to the essential Self has been described in seven stages. The word for self, nafs (nefs) is also equivalent to soul.

1. The self of compulsion seeks satisfaction primarily in satisfying its selfish, carnal desires and its will to power. It is mentioned in the Surah Yusuf (Yusuf Suresi), verse 53, of the Qur'an as the self impelled to evil.
2. The self of conscience has begun to discriminate between right and wrong, and can sometimes resist the temptation to evil and selfish actions. It is mentioned in the Surah Qiyyamah (Kiyamet Suresi), verse 2: I call to witness to self of consience.
3. The self of inspiration is inspired with spiritual knowledge and can reliably follow the voice of consience. It is mentioned in the Surah Shams (Sems Suresi), verses 7-8: By the soul and the proportion and order given to it and its inspiration as to its right and its wrong. This is the highest stage that conventional religion and morality achieves.
4. The soul of tranquility has reached the level of presence in which a conscious intimacy is possible. It is described in Surah Fajr (Fecir Suresi), verses 27-28: O soul in tranquility, return to your Lord well-pleased and well-pleasing to Him.
5. The soul of submission has reached the level where its desires and actions are in harmony with Reality. It accepts each moment as it is and submits itself to Reality. This is described in Surah Ma'idah (Maide Suresi), verse 122: Allah is well-pleased with them and they with God.
6. The soul of total submission is even more completely identified with the Universal Will. This is the stage of the great saints whose lives may be profound and miraculous example of human wholeness. These people are lost in God.
7. The soul of perfection is a theoretical absolute, the perfected or complete human being as described in the Surah Shams (Sems Suresi), verse 9: truly he succeeds who purifies [the soul].

Stages 1 and 2 are more or less under the domination of the false self. Stage 3 might be called the natural self, whereas stages 4 through 7 represents various degrees of the essential Self.

See how the hand is invisible while the pen is writing;
the horse careening, yet the rider unseen;
the arrow flying, but the bow out of sight;
individual souls existing,
while the Soul of souls is hidden

Rumi, Mathnawi (Mesnevi), II, I303-304

We can have no sense of the essential Self unless we arrive at our core-that which is deeper than thoughts and emotions, likes and dislikes, or opinions and ambitions. It is possible to listen within while following the rising of the breath, to listen for a silence behind thoughts and emotions. This silence is the background of what we normally pay attention to. Once this state is somewhat established we might direct our mind to our birth, to the mistery of our coming into the world. We can feel love for this being entering upon life. We might then bring the beginning and the end of our life into the present moment, viewing this present moment with the eyes of eternity, of our loving Creator. With this viewpoint, which is that of the essential Self, many wounds can be healed, many mistakes forgiven, and many loses accepted.

Help me with this ego of mine
that is seeking help from You;
I seek justice from no one
but this justice-seeking self.
I shall not get justice from anyone
except Him who is nearer to me than myself;
for this I-ness comes moment by moment from Him.

Rumi, Mathnawi (Mesnevi), I, 2I95-98

If Sufism recognizes one central truth, it is the unity of being, that we are not separate from the Divine. This is a truth that our age is in excellent position to appreciate-emotionally, because of the shrinking of our world through communications and transportation, and intellectually, because of developments in modern physics. We are One; one people, one ecology, one universe, one being. If there is a single truth, worthy of the name, it is that we are all integral to the Truth, not separate. The realization of this truth has its effects on our sense of who we are, on our relationships to others and to all aspects of life. Sufism is about realizing the current of love that runs throughout all life, the unity behind forms.

The idea of presence with love may be the most basic remedy for the prevailing materialism, selfishness, and unconsciousness of our age. In our obsession with our false selves, in turning our backs on God, we have also lost our essential Self, our own divine spark. In forgetting God, we have forgotten ourselves. Remembering God is the beginning of remembering ourselves.

Sunlight fell upon the wall;
the received a borrowed splendor.
Why set your heart on a piece of earth, simple one?
Seek out the source which shines forever.

Rumi, Mathnawi (Mesnevi), II, 708-709

Sunni

Main group in Islam, making up 90% of the religion's adherents. Has been dominating almost continuously since 661, when the Shi'is departed from the main fold (the Kharijis left in 658). Sunni Islam claims to be the continuation of the Islam as it was defined through the revelations given to Muhammad and his life, a claim which is substantiated through the fact that Shi'i Islam for a number of decades had very little following and had no real, formal organization. As for the theology, Sunni Islam represents no more of a continuation of Islam than the other orientations.

Sunni Islam has its name from its identification with the importance of the Sunna (the examples from the hadiths), which earlier than in Shi'i Islam was established as central to the true image of Islam. This was connected to the need of establishing a law, called Shari'a - Seriat (for which the hadiths served as a central source), as Sunni Islam was the religious orientation of the rulers, while the Shi'is did not establish administrative organizations for yet a long time to come.

The actual theological and ritual differences between Sunni and Shi'i Islam, came over a couple of centuries with development. For a long time, Sunni Islam was defined from Shi'i Islam by its adherence to the Caliph as the leader of the Muslim world.

There are many smaller and some larger differences between Sunni and the two other orientations, in all aspects of the religion. Sunni and Shi'i Islam share only three core doctrines, oneness of God, the belief in the revelations of Muhammad, and the belief in resurrection on the Day of Judgment.

Sunni Islam has a different set of hadiths from Shi'i Islam. In Sunni Islam, there are performed 5 prayers a day, while Shi'i Islam has only 3. Sunni Islam puts far more importance into the hajj to Mecca, while Shi'i Islam has some other central pilgrimages as well. Sunni Islam revere Ali, but does not hold him up the only true continuation of the tradition from Muhammad, and has no emphasis on him bringing on a divine light from the Prophet.

About 85% of the Turks in Turkey are Sunni.

Minaret - Minare

Tower near to, or built into, the structures of a mosque, which is used by the muezzin to call out, adhan (ezan), for people to come to prayers in Islam.

The earliest mosques were built without minarets, and the action of adhan could be performed in many other locations. The hadiths tell us that the Muslim community of Madina called out to prayers from the roof of the house of Muhammad, a house that doubled as a house for prayers.

After around 80 years of post-Muhammadan Islam, did the first minarets we know of, appear, in places as far between as Kairouan, Tunisia and Damascus, Syria. It is good reason to believe that the Great Mosque of Damascus, built in 705, was inspired by the churches of the city, yet the Muslim minaret served its own functions, continuing the old traditions from the house of Muhammad.

Minarets are now very much symbols of Islam, but not theologically heavy symbols. Minarets are often adorned, high, and striving to be as slim and elegant as possible. Modern minarets are often giving even more room for artistic achievements than in earlier times. The ground floor of minarets are always fitted into a square, with the minaret being everything from square to round - many are octagonal. The top ends in the house where the muezzin either is or where the loudspeakers are, covered with a pointed roof.

Mihrab

Niche in a mosque, indicating the qibla (kible), the direction in which a Muslim shall perform his salat. The mihrab is the position of the person leading the congregation in prayer, and is by most considered the most holy place in the mosque, even if a mihrab is never dedicated to God, but frequently to religious personalities. A mosque will normally have only one mihrab.

The mihrab is by both Muslim and Western scholars considered as an element taken from churches, an element added to the mosque of architectural reasons. The mihrab was probably introduced in the 3rd century of Islam, in the 9th century AD.

Mihrabs can be of wood, but is normally made out of masonry, and adorned with pillars. Mihrabs come very often highly ornamented.

Minbar - Minber

Pulpit in a mosque, placed next to the mihrab. The minbar is used with the khutba (hutbe), the Friday sermon, and the khatib ascends it. But he stops on one of the lower steps, the top of the minbar is restricted to the Prophet, only. The minbar soon got an important function for communications, through being the place where official proclamations were made. A minbar is considered as a good place for baraka, blessings, and for giving oaths.

There seems to have been some Christian influence on the shape of the minbar, in the beginning of the history of the mosques. The minbar appears to be from the time of the Prophet, and its introduction is probably an expression of the Prophets position in the society, where the minbar worked as a throne. The minbar of the Prophet had no more than two steps, and a seat. It was the caliph Mu'awiyya who in 670 AD (50 H) raised the minbar of Muhammad with 6 steps, and this became the pattern for all minbars ever after, even if Mu'awiyya's act was strongly opposed.

There was disagreement on whether a mosque should have a minbar when there were no ruler around to ascend it, but minbars were found in all province mosques already before 700 AD. And in some mosques, more than one minbar is found. Minbars soon came to be covered with a curtain, after pattern of Ka'ba.

Imam

A word used in several senses. In general use, it means the leader of congregational prayers; as such it implies no ordination or special spiritual powers beyond sufficient education to carry out this function. It is also used figuratively by many Sunni Muslims to mean the leader of the Islamic community. Among the Shia the word takes on many complex and controversial meanings; in general, however, and particularly when capitalized, it indicates that particular descendant of the House of Ali who is believed to have been God's designated repository of the spiritual authority inherent in that line. The identity of this individual and the means of ascertaining his identity have been the major issues causing divisions among the Shia.

Muezzin

Caller in Islam, the man calling out for people to come to the mosque, to perform salat. In most mosques the muezzin calls, using the adhan (ezan) from the minaret, but many mosques have put loudspeakers up in the minarets.

The institution of muezzin belongs to the customs of Muhammad's own time, and the first muezzin was Bilal. But what way of calling for prayer, and from where, was debated in early Islam. Trumpets, flags, lamps, were all elements doing the same as the muezzin, and which could have replaced him, if the debates had ended differently. The first muezzins were using the roof of the mosque, or the adjacent streets, to call for peoples attention. The muezzin, the public crier, was more of an institution living on from older Arab culture, than an innovation to Islam.

The activities of the muezzin did eventually develop into rituals by themselves. The mere uttering of the calling, heard all over cities, was a ritual, even if most people never did much more than listen. This is reflected in melodious chanting of the adhan (ezan).

The Ka’ba

The most holy structure in Islam. Situated in Mecca, and is according to Islam, the centre of the world. The Ka'ba is the qibla (Kible), the direction Muslims perform the salat, the prayer, in. The area around the Ka'ba is considered sacred, and inside this the truce of God reigns. Man and animals are all safe here, and shall not be forced away. In the Holy Koran, it is written:

"3, 90 ...the first house built for mankind, was in Mecca, to bless and guide all worlds"

The base of the Ka'ba is 10.5 x 12 meters, and it's 15 meters high, and is standing on a marble base, 25 cm high. Each of the corners are pointing in the four directions of the compass. It is built of grey stones from the hills around Mecca.

The door of the Ka'ba is in the north- eastern wall, and is 2 meters above the ground. Inside the Ka'ba, three wooden pillars hold the roof up, which can be accessed by a ladder. The floor is covered by marble, and there are no furnitures, except gold and silver lamps.

East of the door, in the corner, 1,5 meters above the ground, the Black Stone is found. This Black Stone is now in pieces, three large parts, and smaller fragments, which are tied together with a silver band. There are several theories on the origin of the Black Stone: a meteor; lava; or basalt. The color is reddish black, with some red and yellow particles. Its original diameter is estimated to have been 30 cm. There is another stone, too, built into the Ka'ba, in the western corner, the Stone of Good Fortune, which is far less sacred than the Black Stone. The wall between the door and the Black Stone, is very sacred, and has a lot of baraka.

The Ka'ba is covered by the kiswa, a black curtain produced traditionally in Egypt, and changed annually at the time of hajj. In an interim period, lasting a little bit more than two weeks, the Ka'ba is covered by a white covering, and it is at the end of hajj, that the new kiswa is presented. The tradition of the kiswa has seen many changes. Several kiswas could earlier be put over the Ka'ba, kiswas coming from everywhere, and in all possible colors.

There is sparse information on the Ka'ba before the time of Muhammad, but it is clear that it had for centuries been used as an important religious centre, by one or more polytheistic religion(s), which all are now disappeared. There are no traditional sources telling anything about its age, but according to Islam it is the first construction ever put up on earth, as it is seen out of the Koran, excerpt above. But another excerpt (2, 121) says that it was Ibrahim and Ismail who raised the foundations of it. This can be understood as a reconstruction.

A fire in the Ka'ba at the time of Muhammad destroyed it partly, and the reconstruction resulted in major alterations. The size was increased, the door was put up high to prevent unwanted visitors. Rebel activities in 683 AD (64 H) destroyed the Ka'ba over again, and a fire made the Black Stone split. The second reconstruction began after the removal of the old ruins. Two new doors at ground level were added. In 693 (74 H) the new doors were removed, and the Ka'ba have had more or less the same shape and size up until now. Only small alterations and renovations have been made. Most of the stones are original from the 683- structure. The Black Stone was removed from the Ka'ba, for more than 20 years in 10th century. Today some of the old doors and keys of the Ka'ba can be seen in Topkapi Palace in Istanbul; they were taken by the Ottoman sultans.

The doorkeepers of the Ka'ba are still the family Banu Shayba, which were appointed by Muhammad. In addition to being the centre of hajj and umra, the Ka'ba is the centre for some smaller ceremonies. Opening of the Ka'ba, where people, men first, then women, can enter is one.

hac kabe

It's that time of the year, Muslims all over the world are coming to the Holy Sanctuary of Ka'aba. It's time to abandon this illusory world and come to the House of God. It's time for Hajj, the Pilgrimage, one of the five pillars of Islam. Those who can go will head to Mecca, those who can't will join in the festivities of Homecoming wherever they may be by celebrating the Eid of Sacrifice (Kurban bayrami) by the end of Ramadan month.

Hajj is a commemoration of love and celebration of faith. We commemorate Abraham's Supreme Sacrifice in love of his Beloved in Minna. We celebrate his wife Hagar's display of unprecedented love for the infant Ishmael and her unflinching trust in the Providence in the lonely desert around the Twin Peaks. We venerate God's Greatest Gift, the Quran by spending a day in Arafat where the final revelation was sent. We celebrate faith by coming face- to- face to the Qiblah of our prayers.

Hajj is also an act of renunciation. Muslims from every corner of the globe wear their coffins - two cotton sheets - to represent their deaths to this life and head to their Primordial Home. They pay their debts, ask forgiveness of everyone, bid farewell to one and all and prepare to die to this world to live in Him.

Ka'aba is a special place in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It was the first house of worship built by the first man. God commanded Adam to make a journey. He walked umpteen months until he arrived guided by God to Mecca. Here, he was instructed to build Him a House. This was mankind's first House of Worship. It was once lost to us but our Beloved led His Friend Abraham (God's Peace be upon him) to this Sanctuary and gave him the task of restoring this House. Abraham (GPBUH) recruited his son Ishmael for the Holy Task. For months at end, father and son toiled under the searing desert sun sustained only by their burning love for the Eternal God. This choice was no random choice. Abraham was *the* man for the job. Every year, when men and women were to come to this blessed House, they were to come on 10th of the month of Zilhijj. This auspicious day God asked Abraham to make the Supreme Sacrifice and Abraham delivered. Allah asked His Friend to sacrifice his son Ishmael and he obliged.

Ka'aba's foundations have been fortified by love and faith of Abraham's family. We go there to commemorate love. We go there to celebrate faith. Abraham lived the true meaning of Surrender. He loved God, his Friend, above all. God gave him a dream where he saw himself sacrificing his son. Persistence of the dream convinced him that it wasn't just a dream but an allusion from the Infinite. He intimated the dream to his son who readily concurred. Once it was known to be God's Will, the son didn't offer any excuses. It was a foregone conclusion that His Will be done. Father and son set off to the designated place. When they reached their destination, son suggested that the father cover his eyes so his love does not overwhelm him into disobeying His master. At the very moment that Abraham let loose his knife, the son was substituted with a lamb. This time and this day was made sacred. Every year, millions come this very day. Millions retrace the steps of these two in the valley of Mina, Saudi Arabia, they arrive where the Supreme Sacrifice was offered. Here, everyone offers a sacrifice in His Love and then gives it to the poor people. Those who can't be here, celebrate this wonderful sacrifice wherever they may be in any part of the world. For indeed, love of God must be celebrated.

We commemorate Abraham and his son's faith and surrender. We also celebrate Mother Hagar's love. Mother's love is the highest form of selfless human love. Hagar typified this love so well. She combined this love with her unshakable trust in God. Abraham was instructed to bring her and her infant son Ishmael near the mound that was once the Ka'aba. In this desolate place with nary a single soul and nary a water source, he left them with a leather bag containing some dates, and a small water-skin containing some water, and set out homeward. Ishmael's mother followed him saying, "O Abraham! Where are you going, leaving us in this valley where there is no person whose company we may enjoy, nor is there anything (to enjoy)?" She repeated that to him many times, but he did not look back at her. Then she asked him, "Has Allah ordered you to do so?" He said, "Yes." She said, "Then He will not neglect us." What an exemplary Trust in their Beloved God! They knew that the Causer of all Causes will provide. He is Eminently Resourceful. Ishmael's mother went on suckling Ishmael and drinking from the water (she had). When all water ran out, she became thirsty and her child also became thirsty. She started looking at Ishmael tossing in agony; she left him, for she could not endure looking at him, and found that the mountain of Safa was the nearest mountain to her on that land. She stood on it and started looking at the valley keenly so that she might see somebody, but she could not see anybody. Then she descended from Safa and when she reached the valley, she tucked up her robe and ran in the valley like a person in distress and trouble, till she crossed the valley and reached the Marwa mountain where she stood and started looking, expecting to see somebody, but she could not see anybody. She repeated that (running between Safa and Marwa) seven times. God loved this selfless display of motherly love so much that every pilgrim to His Holy House must run 7 times between the Twin Peaks of Safa and Marwa. When she reached the Marwa (for the last time) she heard a voice and she asked herself to be quiet and listened attentively. She heard the voice again and said, 'O, (whoever you may be)! You have made me hear your voice; have you got something to help me?" And behold! She saw an angel at the place of Zam-Zam (Zemzem), digging the earth with his heel till water flowed from that place. She started to make something like a basin around it, using her hand in this way, and started filling her water-skin with water with her hands, and the water was flowing out after she had scooped some of it. This wonderful gift of God hasn't stopped yet. Hundreds of Millions come every year and take gallons and gallons of the Holy Water (Zam-Zam) with them and still the small well never goes dry.

Ka'aba is overwhelming to be in company of 3 million brothers and sisters in faith every year, all enshrouded in humble whites. The highest king to the humble laborer are both dressed alike. They stand shoulder to shoulder, they run side by side and they greet each other the greeting of peace. People of all races intermingle as co-equals. Black, white, yellow and brown all come together in harmony before their Beloved. Men and women all stand together. All their lives 5 times a day they turned their faces to their Qiblah - the Holy Ka'aba and now they see it right in front of them in all its majesty and glory.

We circulate around the Holy Ka'aba proclaiming all the while our Arrival. Circling around the earthly shadow of the Pole, we are reminded to keep our Beloved at the Center of our lives. We are reminded to keep Him in front of our lives and in center of our existence. Whenever we pray, this circulation is affixed and imprinted in our consciousness.

Hajj is the highest of all Muslim practices, even if less than 10% of all Muslim ever manage to perform it. In modern times about 2 million Muslims perform the hajj every year, and this number seems to be fairly close to the maximum. Saudi authorities have now put regulations on how many (1 out of 1000) can come from each country, so that want to perform the hajj, have to apply, and many are turned down. Hajj is important because it lets the believer come to the place that both is the centre of the world, as well as the place where the divine revelations of the Holy Koran started, and continued for about 12 years. But most important, but slightly less mentioned than the two first, is that hajj is a continuation of what is according to Islam one of the very oldest true and pure religious rituals.

What the believer does during hajj is recall what happened to Abraham and Isma'il, when they made the Ka'ba into the sacred place of worship and peace (2,119). Even if the theological background for some parts of hajj is unclear now, the running These are the ones that are not obliged to perform hajj at least once during their lifetime: Mad people, slaves, women that are without traveling company (close relative or husband), people without the necessary funds. Most hajjiyys (haci) arrive in Mecca few days before the hajj proper begins, while some see the opportunity of arriving in Ramadan, the month of sawm, an act which is seen as especially meritious. While it is recommended that the hajjiyys should robe himself in the ihram already at the beginning of the journey, the clear majority puts this on towards the end of the journey to Mecca. The first that the hajjiyy does is to perform the umra, while the hajj proper starts on Dhu l-hijja. 7. But the umra is by all means understood as a part of the hajj, and many of the symbols connected to hajj are as a matter of fact happenings during the umra.

Dhu l-hijja. 7

This day is spent with praying in the Great Mosque in Mecca. This act is preparing the hajjiyys for the holy ceremonies.

Dhu l-hijja. 8

The hajjiyys now leave Mecca. Following the two casquets that are being brought every year to the hajj from Damascus and from Cairo, the hajjiyys reach the plain of Arafat, after passing through Mina and Muzdalifa. Many ascend the mountain Jabalu r-Rahma, but these days, only a small percentage has the chance of actually doing this. Up on the mountain the one small phrase, "Labbayka", is sung out over and over again.

Dhu l-hijja. 9

This is really the day that is meant to be spent out here, and the action during this day is simply called wuquuf, 'standing'.Two khutbas fill the day entirely. When the sun sets behind the Western hills, the idafa starts. The idafa is the running to Muzdalifa. The two last prayers are performed here, and the night spent.

Dhu l-hijja. 10

This morning starts with a khutba in Muzdalifa, before the hajjiyys goes to Mina. In Mina different duties awaites the hajjiyy. 7 stones, that have been gathered in Muzdalifa the day before, are thrown by each hajjiyy at the 3 jamra, pillars that shall represent the powers of Shaytan (devil). This place, Shaytan appeared in front of Ibrahim. When the 7 stones have been thrown off, the hajj is more or less to an end, yet there are othere ceremonies yet to be performed. The crying of "labbayka" comes to an end, aound this time. At this time a sheep or a goat is sacrificed, but while this ends the hajj, it is another fiest, called Idu l-kabir. Many of the hajjiyys do not kill the animal themselves, but get professional butchers to do it. Parts of the meat are these days eaten, but most is taken care of by Saudi authorities, that make sure that nothing is lost, but distributed partly to the needing. Many have their heads shaven at this moment. The shaving is done while turning towards the qibla. When this is done, the ihram is left, and the hajjiyy is no longer a mihram, the one that had the holy purity of the ihram. It is now custom to return to Mecca, and perform the tawwaf, the circumambulation of the Ka'ba. Washing and bathing is done this same day, as this was prohibited during the ihram.

Dhu l-hijja. 11- 13

These last days of the extended hajj are spent in Mina, and are filled with eating, drinking and sensual pleasure. Every day seven stones are thrown on each of the 3 jamra. While the most correct is to stay at Mina until the 13., a large number of the hajjiyys return to Mecca on the 12. A last umra has to be performed. Some days later, people set out for what has become an intrinsic part of the hajj, a visit to Madina and the tomb of Muhammad.

Caliphs

Caliph was the person acting in Muhammad's place after his death, i.e. the leader of Islam (sunni). When Muhammad died in 632, the Muslim community faced a problem on how their community should be governed, and how leaders should be appointed. There were conflicting stories on what Muhammad had said, and the tensions that came already with the first appointment of a leader, a person acting in the place of the Messenger, a khalifatu r-rasuul, few months after Muhammad's death. Khalifa can be translated as "successor, vicegerent", but is a term that is seldom used for anything else than the leader of the entire Muslim community, and when other forms of usage appears the use of "Caliph" (khalifa), is very conscient regarding the main meaning of the term.

Through history, we have seen parallel Caliphs, but none had as much symbolic power and influence as the one that followed the line of Caliphs from Abu Bakr, which was the first. This line of Caliphs had a steady residence in Damascus from 661 to 750, and Baghdad and Samarra up until 1258. After 1258, and until 1924 there have been several Caliphs, but all of these have had only limited influence, they have represented no continuation of the Caliphs of Baghdad, and in more than one case, these caliphhoods have been motivated by political motives, and few or none religious. The Muslim world have never agreed upon uniting behind anyone of these.

The Caliph carried other titles, that were less modest, as they were not relative to Muhammad, but to the Muslim community. As amiiru l-mu'miniin he was responsible for the Muslim armies. As imam he was the head of public worship, and gave khutbas (hutbe). The last Caliph was removed by the Mongols when they conquered Bagdad. After this there has been several rulers putting up their own Caliph, but the Caliphate never gained any of its former power or importance.

There are four periods of the Caliphate of Islam:

1. The Rashiduns (632-661): Rashidun is the name used for the first four Caliphs, from 632 to 661, and indicate that these were the just and admirable leaders of the Muslim community. This period was marked by a long line of conquests by the Arabs, as well as endeavors to turn the leaflets of the revelations that had been given to Muhammad into a book, the Holy Koran. Inside the Muslim realms peace prevailed until the death of Uthman in 656. As this was a murder, the Muslim could not agree upon quite who was responsible. This time, the caliphate of Ali, came with the two schismas that has impregnated Islam ever since, when first there was a break between the majority and a group now known as Kharijis, and later between the group now known as Shi'is and the Sunnis.

2. The Ummawiyys (661-750): The Ummawiyyas got their power through military actions, a fact that influenced their religious legitimacy strongly through the 90 years they had the power. Most Muslim regard the Ummawiyyas as less admirable than both the Rashiduns and the later Abbasids. Even if the Shi'is did not accept the rule of the Ummawiyy Caliphs, this group was at the time to weak to represent much of a threat to the ruling group.

3. The Abbasids (750-1258): The Abbasids was to a large extent Shi'is (the division lines of today was not as clear in those early days), and the defeating of the Ummawiyys was strongly motivated by Ali's claim on the leading position in the Muslim world. The Abbasid Caliph involved himself strongly in the religious life of the community. The distance between ruler and people became longer, the court of the Caliph was one of increasing splendor.

   The 9th century was the start of the decline of the real influence of the Caliph on first politics, and soon also religious matters. The symbolic importance was, however, increased. All effective power was lost in 946. The Buyyids became the new ruling dynasty, but in secular terms. Some cases of outward importance of the Caliph was seen in some cases in the following centuries, but this was mainly instances where the secular ruler got the blessings of the Caliph, but without giving the Caliph any form of influence. The blessings, in the shape of a diploma of investiture and robes of honor was given to strong leaders as Saladin.

   In 928 Abdu r-Rahman III of Spain, a desendant of the Ummawiyys, took the title caliph, a title his descendants also carried. The Fatimids of Egypt had also taken this title, as far as back to 909, but they put less emphasis on this than what the Ummawiyys of Spain did.

4. The period after 1258: When al-Musta'sim was killed in 1258 by the Mongols, he did not leave any heir. The uncle of al-Musta'sim was however installed in the position as Caliph in 1261 in Cairo, but this Caliph disappeared in the desert when bringing an army up north in order to try to sack the Mongols. A new Caliph was installed in 1262, once again in Cairo, this also a relative of al-Musta'sim. A mere symbol, without the permission to move freely around, this new line of Caliphs stayed in their position for about 250 years. Except from installing the Sultan in great ceremonies, this Caliph had no importance. The Abbasid Caliph of Cairo was also ignored by the rest of the Muslim world.

   In several places Caliphs popped up, in Maghreb, with the Seljuks, the Timurids, the Turcomans, the Uzbeks and the Ottomans. When the Ottomans conquered Egypt in 1517, the remaining Caliph was transported to Istanbul, the Ottoman Sultan Selim called himself Caliph. Later sources claims that the Abbasid caliph transferred his dignity to Selim. In the 18th century the importance of being Caliph had grown stronger for the Ottoman Sultan, and started to call himself the protector of the Muslim religion. Some influence did the Ottoman Caliph and Sultan have. With the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the Sultan held on to his title of Caliph for two more years, until his office was abolished in March 1924 by Atatürk.

   A congress in Cairo in 1926, that tried to reestablish the Caliphate, did not manage to succeed. Important Muslim countries did not participate, and the resolutions agreed upon did not result in real actions, even if they expressed to be in favor of a Caliphate. Since then nothing has been done, much due to nationalism in the different countries. There are no more Caliphs around the world today.

The five pillars of Islam

Islam is divided into "iman", the belief of a Muslim, and "din", the practice of his religion. Just as there are six articles of faith, so there are five compulsory works, generally known as the "Five Pillars of Islam". Muhammed is alleged to have defined these pillars according to the following tradition:

Narrated Ibn Umar: Allah's Apostle said: Islam is based on (the following) five (principles):

1. To testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and Muhammed is Allah's apostle.
2. To offer the (compulsory congregational) prayers dutifully and perfectly.
3. To pay Zakat (i.e. obligatory charity).
4. To perform Hajj (i.e. Pilgrimage to Mecca).
5. To observe fast during the month of Ramadan.

(Sahih al-Bukhari, Vol. 1, p. 17).

It is somewhat surprising to find the first pillar among the works of Islam as it is really a testimony of faith, but the recital of this creed has become one of the deliberate acts of piety in Islam, indeed its foremost duty, and anyone wishing to become a Muslim need only recite the creed, known as the Kalimah (the "Word"), or the Shahadah (the "Testimony" of Faith), with an express intention to personally profess what he is reciting (this intention is known as the Muslim's niyyah) to be admitted to the faith.

The two main important issues of the Koran for the believer are

The two main important issues of the Koran for the believer are:

1. Being the focal point of all Muslims. The Koran is regarded by most as the uncreated word of God, written on golden tablets in Paradise. This view, strongly contended inside the Muslim world in the first centuries, marks the end of the most fruitful period of Muslim science. Until the middle of the 9th century (2nd hijra century) the dominating view among theologians was that the Koran was created by God, hence his spoken words. For the Muslims today, the Koran is a physical proof of Islam.
2. Being the sound of Islam. When recited, a holy atmosphere is created, an atmosphere involving God, the world, the truth and peace. During the moment of reciting, the compound becomes sacred, and the moment powerful. The reciting of the Koran is an art known by most Muslims. The technique used normally involves sitting on the ground with the book in the lap or placed on specially made low table. This sitting position is resembling the lotus position used in eastern religions, but is not at all strict on the upright position of the spine, most Muslims bend over the Koran they read. The reading technique uses a rhythm with around 60 beats a second. The performance of this rhythm, is done with both torso, swaying a little in a oval shape, and voice and reading speed. Surprisingly overlooked by most western scholars, the reading of the Koran is a meditative moment for all Muslims, and a ritual that can be performed anywhere anytime, not only in the mosque.
3. The Koran's actual guidance in everyday life for Muslims, must not be overestimated. Muslim's think of the Koran as too complex to be a guide in daily matters, as interpreted by a Muslim layman. When a Muslim have a problem where the Holy Koran is involved, asking learned men or reading books written by men learned in Islamic sciences, is the choice of most. There are situations where Muslims look up the Koran for guidance, but this will be in cases where they know what to look for, and where to look.

The Ritual of Sema

The fundamental condition of our existence is to revolve. There is no object, no being which does not revolve. The shared similarity between all created things is the revolution of the electrons, protons, and neutrons within the atoms that constitute their basic structure. From the smallest cell to the planets and the farthest stars, everything takes part in this revolving. Thus, The Semazens, the ones who whirl, participate consciously in the shared revolution of all existence.

The Sema ceremony represents a spiritual journey; the seeker's turning toward God and truth, a maturing through love, the transformation of self as a way of union with God, and the return to life as the servant of all creation.

The Semazen (with a camel's-felt hat representing a tombstone and a wide white skirt symbolizing the death shroud), upon removing his black cloth, is spiritually born to Truth. The semazens stand with their arms crossed, ready to begin their turn. In their erect posture, they represent the number one, testifying to God's unity. Each rotation takes them past the sheikh, who stands on a red sheep skin. This is the place of Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi , and the sheikh is understood to be a channel for the divine grace. At the start of each of the four movements of the ceremony, the semazens bow to each other honoring the spirit within. As their arms unfold, the right hand opens to the skies in prayer, ready to receive God's beneficence. The left hand, upon which his gaze rests, is turned towards the earth in the gesture of bestowal.

Fix-footed, the semazen provides a point of contact with this Earth through which the divine blessings can flow. Turning from right to left, he embraces all creation as he chants the name of God within the heart. The Sema ritual consists of seven parts:

1. It starts with the singing of the Nat-i-Serif, a eulogy to the Prophet Muhammed (peace be upon him), who represents love. Praising him is praising the truth of God that he and all the prophets before him brought.
2. Then follows the call of the drum and the slap of glory, calling the semazens to awaken and Be. This begins the procession known as the Sultan Veled Walk. It is the salutation of one soul to another, acknowledged by bowing.
3. Then begins the Sema ritual itself. It consists of four selams or salutes. The first selam is the birth of truth by way of knowledge. The second selam expresses the rapture of witnessing the splendor of creation. The third selam is the transformation of rapture into love; the sacrifice of mind and self to love. It represents complete submission and communion with God. The fourth selam is the semazen's coming to terms with his destiny and his return to his task in creation. In the fourth selam, the sheikh enters the circling dervishes, where he assumes the place of the sun in the center of the circling planets.
4. The Sema end with a reading from the Qur'an. The sheikh and dervishes complete their time together with the greeting of peace and then depart, accompanied by joyous music of their departure.

One of the beauties of this seven-centuries-old ritual is the way that it unifies the three fundamental components of man's nature; mind, emotion, and spirit, combining them in a practice and a worship that seeks the purification of all three in the turning towards Divine Unity. But most significantly, the enrichment of this earth and the well-being of humanity as a whole.

Whirling Dervishes

Known to the west as Whirling Dervishes, the members of the Mevlevi Order (named for their founder Mevlana) from Konya lived in what we might call coisters or monasteries - what to them was a Mevlevihane. The one at Galata in Istanbul is a product of late Ottoman architecture, and quite elaborate in having a tomb, a large chamber for the ceremony of the whirling dance (Sema), a fountain from which water was charitably distributed to the public, a time keeper's room, cells for the dervishes, separate quarters for the Master, a section for women, a chamber of silence, a large ornate fountain for ablutions, and a laundry room.

The Mevlevi Order founded by Mevlana in Konya during the Seljuk period is made up first and foremost of tekke analogous to the monasteries of the West. The first of these tekkes is named for Mevlana and was considered as the originator of all the rest. One figure stands out in the early spread of the order: Divani Mehmet Celebi. The celebis or gentle ones who went out to break new ground and make converts saw themselves as disciples of this great master, and an astonishing number of tekkes were established during Divani Mehmet Celebi's lifetime and thanks to his efforts; in Aleppo, Egypt and Algeria, on the islands of Chios (Sakiz) and Mitilene, and of course on the Turkish mainland. The Galata Mevlevihane is among these latter.

The rituals of the Rumi's followers (Whirling Dervishes) are among the enduring as well as the most exquisite ceremonies of spirituality. The ritual whirling of the dervishes is an act of love and a drama of faith. It possesses a highly structured form within which the gentle turns become increasingly dynamic as the individual dervishes strive to achieve a state of trans. The music that accompanies the whirling from beginning to end ranges from somber to rhapsodical; its effect is intended to be mesmerizing. Chanting of poetry, rhythmic rotation, and incessant music create a synthesis which, according to the faithful, induces a feeling of soaring, of ecstasy, of mystical flight.

The Mevlevi sect belongs to the Sunni or orthodox mainstream of Islam. Its doctrine never developed a revolutionary strategy - and although it was occasionally criticized for its heretical ideas, it always enjoyed the respect of the officialdom.

Many later Ottoman Sultans, including Mehmed, the Conqueror of Istanbul, were enamored of Mevlevi ideals. The reformist Sultan Selim III was virtually a member. Suleyman, probably the greatest of the Sultans, held the Mevlevi dervishes in high esteem and their semahane (whirling hall) constructed for them as his imperial gift. The hall/mosque stands next to Rumi's mausoleum in Konya.

Besides Mevlevi dervishes, also Bektashi Order's dervishes were highly regarded by the sultans and other common people. The dances of Bektashi dervishes was called as Kirklar Sema dance, which didn't involve whirling like the Mevlana's.

The Whirling Dervishes played a vitally important part in the evolution of Ottoman high culture. From the 14th to the 20th century , their impact on classical poetry, calligraphy, and the visual arts was profound, while music was perhaps their greatest achievement. Since the dogmatists of Islam's orthodoxy opposed music as being harmful to the listener and detrimental to religious life, no sacred music or mosque music evolved except for the Mevlud, a poem in praise of the Prophet Muhammed, chanted on high occasions or as a requiem. Rumi and his followers integrated music into their rituals as an article of faith. In his verses, Rumi emphasized that music uplifts our spirit to realms above, and we hear the tunes of the Gates of Paradise. The meeting places of the dervishes, consequently, became academies of art, music, and dance. Today, the performances of The Whirling Dervishes includes twelve musicians (on traditional Turkish instruments) and 12 dancers. There is also a master of ceremony. A performance is broken into two parts with the introduction conducted by the master followed by 3 or 4 pieces of music. This is followed by a 4-part whirling ceremony.

Tevfik Fikret (1867 - 1915)

Tevfik Fikret (1867 - 1915)

Great Turkish Poet during the Ottoman period. His real personality in poetry emerged when he became the literary editor of the "Servet-i Fünun" journal. Fikret, while at first writing romantic lyrical poems, made a sharp turn towards social issues after 1908 and the acceptance of the Constitution. His poems called "Sis" (Fog) and "Bir lahza-i Teehhür" tell us about the repressive regime of the Abdülhamit days. "Tarih-i Kadim" on the other hand is constructed with lines which tell about religious pressures and a wish to destroy reactionary attitudes.

After the establishment of the constitutional system in Ottoman Government, he published the paper "Tanin" with another famous journalist Hüseyin Cahit. His poem "Sis" was published in its first issue. He published "Haluk'un Cevabi" (Haluk's Answer) in 1911, which was followed by "Sermin". He also published a magazine for children called "Ümit ve Azim". Fikret who was an outspoken person instantly revolting against injustice, died on August 19, 1915. His grave is at Asiyan on the Bosphorus (Istanbul). His home is now a museum and a Tevfik Fikret Association is also established. His poetry is collected in a volume titled "Rübab-i Sikeste".

Yunus Emre (1238 - 1320)

One of the greatest and the deepest poets of the Turkish folk literature. Yunus Emre is a great poet who managed to turn the Anatolian dialect into a language of literature and who succeeded in reciting poetry and chanting hymns in pure Turkish. He has written about issues which looked extremely complex.

Written in a pure and easily understood Turkish, some of his poems, which seem to be over simple at first glance, carry a deep meaning and have a certain quality which grips the reader and excites him, weaving a special magic. Yunus, in most of his poems declares his great love for the God. He has felt the elusive excitements of the love of God and also made others to feel it. He was a follower of Bektashi Order of Alevi sect.

In Cesme (Izmir) every year there is an international song festival dedicated to him.

Asik Veysel (1894 - 1973)

Asik Veysel (Veysel Satiroglu) is among the minstrels of the Republican era. Born in the Sivrialan village of Sarkisla (district of Sivas), he lost his sight at the age of 7 during a smallpox epidemic. He developed his talents as he got familiar with the broken saz (string instrument) given to him by his father to keep him entertained, and as he listen to the wandering minstrels visiting Sivrialan. When both his mother and father died in 1920, he was left alone with his saz and the children of his elder brother. He gained recognition after 1931. He reached Ankara for the 10th year anniversary of the Republic established by Atatürk after traveling on foot for three months. He traveled around the country, reciting his poetry and playing his saz. He was a teacher of folk songs at various village institutes.

All poems of Asik Veysel were collected by Ümit Yasar Oguzcan and published with the title "Let the Friends Remember Me" (1970). A book of collected works edited by Ð. Y. Oguzcan was also published in 1973 which includes his biography and articles written about him and his poetry.

Sinasi (1826 - 1871)

The first great Turkish journalist, and the distinguished name of Tanzimat literature of the Ottoman period. He started to work as the editor of the newspaper "Tercüman-i Ahval" in 1860. Sinasi who presented his progressive ideas in a western style at the first privately owned paper of Turkey, is also the first editorial writer of this country.

His play, "Sair Evlenmesi", which is considered the first significant step of the Turkish theater, was also published in this paper.

He started to publish another paper called "Tasvir-i Efkar" on June 28, 1862. With it he has given the most progressive and the best example of journalism for those times, where he touched upon every social problem. He collected his poems in a volume titled "Müntehabat-i Es'ar". Another volume called "Durub-i Emsal" is the first book of proverbs published in this country, which was true to appropriate form.

UNESCO Mevlana Year

The great mystic and poet Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi was born in Belh (Balkh), in present day Afghanistan but in Greater Khorasan region back in Persian times, on September 30, 1207 A.D. His father Bahaeddin Veled, who was known as Sultan-ul Ulema (the king of the learned men), was a renowned scholar who, however, raised the ire of the established academia of his times by critisizing the tenets of Greek philosophy. This and the start of the Mongol invasions made him decide to leave Belh. This was when Mevlana was only five years old. The family, which reached Anatolia after stopping in Yemen and Damascus, lived in Larende (Karaman) for seven years; and then, upon the invitation of the Selcuk Sultan Alaeddin Keykubat, Bahaeddin Veled settled in Konya in Central Anatolia in 1220. Meanwhile Mevlana married Gevher Hatun in Karaman; his son, Sultan Veled, was born in 1226 in the same town. Bahaeddin Veled, Mevlana's father, was a cultured scholar and mystic.

His knowledge, his discourses and his environment played a significant role in shaping and educating Mevlana, who advanced so rapidly that when his father died in 1230, he had already become a scholar and a teacher at the tender age of 23. Thus it would not bean exaggeration to say that Mevlana had learned the fundamentals of philosophy and mysticism from his father.

If a day won't come
when the monuments to institutionalized religion lie in ruin
.....then my beloved,
then we are really in trouble!

When Bahaeddin Veled died in 1230, a friend and a student of his, Burhaneddin Muhakkik Tirmizi, came to Konya and functioned as Mevlana's teacher for 9 years, before he relocated in Kayseri and died there in 1242.

Mevlana also was educated in the two major university centers of the time, Aleppo and Damascus; he was a well rounded scholar who had accumulated much theological and scientific knowledge. He had such command of Turkish, Persian, Arabic, Greek that he could write poetry in all four languages. He also had good relations with Haci Bektas Veli of the Bektashi Order and his dervishes.

Mevlana, who first met Semseddin Tebrizi in 1244, so fell under his spell that the emergence of Mevlana as mystic poet is traced to the effect Semseddin Tebrizi had on him. Much, most of it speculative, has been said about the personality and identity of Semseddin Tebrizi, this wielder of such a powerful effect on the spirit of Mevlana, himself the strangest of personalities.

Everything seems to point to Semseddin Tebrizi's being a sufi master of such extraordinary knowledge and power that he could touch and light the torch in Mevlana's heart, in a sense transforming him. It was also Sems, who taught Mevlana the ritual dance-like practice callled Sem'a and the latter concieved it almost as a form of prayer or meditation. Sems, who must have reached rarefied spiritual heights, was a fearless man who would make no concessions to the prejudices, of the masses or the learned, either in behavior or in speech. So he made a great number of enemies and was not at all popular in Konya. Therefore he left Konya and went to Damascus in 1245; but returned to Konya when Mevlana implored him to, such was the older man's attachment to Sems. Two years later, in 1247, Sems dissappeared in a mysterious manner and was never heard of again.

Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi's masterpiece, his six volume Mesnevi consisting of 25700 couplets, is regarded as the most outstanding work of Persian-Islamic mysticism. It is not clear when Mevlana started writing the Mesnevi, though it is known that he started on the second volume of his magnum opus in 1264.

This masterpiece of Islam's mystic literature was written in the form of poetry which included philosophical, mystical, and spiritual messages and could in a sense be considered allegories which carry deep spiritual and religious meanings.

His second masterpiece, Divan-i Sems, though smaller in size is no less important from a literary and mystical standpoint. Divan-i Sems or (Divan-i Kebir as it is sometimes called) is a collection of verses (gazels) in which Mevlana reached heights of poetry, music and mysticism. It is regarded as the mature expression of his consciousness of universal unity (Vahdet-i Vucud).

Apart from these two masterpieces, Mevlana produced works, called Fihi Ma-Fih, Mecalis-i Seba and Mektubat (or Letters) which have all been translated into Turkish, and also, in part or in full, into Arabic, English, French and German.

Following a short bout with an illness Mevlana died in Konya on December 17, 1273, whereupon Husameddin Celebi, a student and a disciple of his, stepped into his place on the insistence of Mevlana's son Sultan Veled, upon the former's death in 1284, Sultan Veled in turn became the master and made important contributions to the emergence of the sect which is called Mesnevi after Mevlana's name.

Crowns titles and riches love covets not
and when love's gaze falls upon a yearning heart
behold
the doors to His heart will open wide.

Mevlana was not only a great poet and philosopher but first and foremost he was a mystic, a spiritually touched man. His mind and heart had reached for heights and depths of the spiritual world. In his vision there were two universes which coincided in Man. The inner world was like an endless infinite ocean, which could only be felt and seen with the eyes of the heart, while the outer world was but like the passing foam which appears on the surface of the waves emenating from that ocean.

of the secret wine
all drank but just a sip-so as to become
so as to exist.
But I
drank barrels and barrels of that wine
so as to become
a mirror-pure.

Mevlana also integrated a dualist approach in his mind: In approaching issues pertaining to daily life he is a rationalist, but in approaching spiritual and mystical matters he recognizes only the mastery of the heart and emotions. According to him, the only way to approach absolute being is through love; and God's love is everywhere, permeating everything. If one were to love another being in the name of God, one would find a pathway leading to the absolute. According to him everything in the universe, every being, even matter itself - all are but manifestations of God and exist in God and are united in the Absolute Being. Thus Mevlana views all existence as a united whole. In a sense, one could call his vision that of Unity Consciousness. This vision impelled Mevlana to transcend all differences and prejudices, and formed the basis of his immense tolerance and of his real and deep humanism. With these characteristics, Mevlana and his thought transcended the boundaries of his time and thus he and his writings are still relevant and fresh in this day and age, some 700 years after. The universality of his thought finds its reflection in, for example, the famous verses where he says:

Come!
Come whoever you are.
Doesn't matter if you are an unbeliever.
Doesn't matter if you have fallen a thousand times.
Come!
Come whoever you are. For this is not the door of hopelessness.
Come,
Just as you are!

With the tens of thousands of verses he wrote, and with the depths of spirituality he phantomed which helped him grasp qualities of timelessness and humanistic universality, Mevlana and the sect which was founded after him, have not only influenced the Anatolian - Turkish civilizations but indeed have had far-reaching influences on the intellectual and artistic life of many individuals and nations.

UNESCO Mevlana Year

The UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) has market 2007 as the "Mevlana Year" to celebrate 800th anniversary of the birth of Mevlana Celaleddin-i Belhi-Rumi. This decisions was made because Rumi advocated tolerance, reason and access to knowledge through love. His mystical relationship with Islam produced masterpieces that have marked Islamic culture and religious beliefs beyond the borders of Turkey. His work and thought remain universally relevant today in our world.

Muslims

Muslims

Islam, a major world religion, is customarily defined in non-Islamic sources as the religion of those who follow the Prophet Muhammed. The prophet, who lived in Arabia in the early 7th century, initiated a religious movement that was carried by the Arabs throughout the Middle East, then by the Turks to the Balkans. Today, Islam has adherents not only in the Middle East, where it is the dominant religion in all countries (Arab and non-Arab), but also in other parts of Asia, Africa and, to a certain extent, in Europe and in the United States and Canada.

The Name and Its Meaning The Arabic word al-Islam means the act of committing oneself unreservedly to God, and a Muslim is a person who makes this commitment. Widely used translations such as "resignation," "surrender" and "submission" fail to do justice to the positive aspects of the total commitment for which al-Islam stands, a commitment in faith, obedience, and trust to the one and only God. All of these elements are implied in the name of this religion, which is characteristically described in the Koran (Arabic, Qur'an; the sacred book of Islam) as "the religion of Abraham." In the Koran, Abraham is the patriarch who turned away from idolatry, who "came to his Lord with an undivided heart" (37:84), who responded to God in total obedience when challenged to sacrifice his son, and who served God uncompromisingly. For Muslims, therefore, the proper name of their religion expresses the Koranic insistence that no one but God is to be worshiped. Hence, many Muslims, while recognizing the significance of the Prophet Muhammad, have objected to the terms Mohammedanism and Mohammedans designations used widely in the West until recently, since they detect in them the suggestion of a worship of Muhammad parallel to the worship of Jesus Christ by Christians.

Numbers

Estimates of the world population of Muslims range from a low of 750 million to a high of 1.2 billion; 950 million is a widely used medium. Notwithstanding the significant variations in these estimates, many observers agree that the world population of Muslims is increasing by approximately 25 million per year. Thus, a 250-million increase is anticipated for the decade 2000-2100. This significant expansion, due primarily but not entirely to the general population growth in Asia and Africa, is gradually reducing the numerical difference between Christians (the largest religious community) and Muslims, whose combined totals make up almost 50 percent of the world's population. In the United States and Canada population of Muslims estimates as 9,000,000 peoples.

The dietary laws of Islam, a Summary

The dietary laws of Islam are based in the Koran. They forbid eating animals found blood, pork, and food sacrificed or offered to idols. Islamic practice departs from Jewish practice in that alcohol is forbidden.

Halal (or Helal) is a Quranic term which means allowed or lawful. Halal food and drinks are permitted for consumption. Eating Halal is obligatory for every Muslim.

Haram is Quranic term which means absolutely prohibited or unlawful. Haram foods and drinks are prohibited. Eating Haram is forbidden for every Muslim.

Mushbooh is a term which mean suspected. If one does not know the status of particular food or drink, such a food or drink is forbidden.

For more Islamic terms visit the Glossary: A - M, N - Z

Islam in Turkey

What does "Islam" mean?

The Arabic word "Islam" simply means "submission", and drives from a word meaning "peace" and a life focused on peace, mercy, and forgiveness. In a religious context it means complete submission to the will of God. "Mohammedanism" is thus a misnomer because it suggests that Muslims worship Muhammad, peace be upon him, rather than God. "Allah" is the Arabic name for God, which is used by Arab Muslims and Christians.

Evangelized by the Prophet Muhammed in the 600's AD, Islam is a religion celebrated by an estimated one billion people. One fifth of the world's population from a vast range of cultures, nationalities, and races embrace Islam as both a religion and a way of life. In Turkey, approximately ninety-eight percent of the citizens are Muslims.

Muhammed was born in Mecca in about 570 AD. He preached that there is only one God and that he, Muhammed, was God's messenger. Those that accept him as such are called Muslims, which means "one who submits to God.". The Koran (Kuran, Qur'an) is the Islamic Bible, believed to be an exact record of the words revealed by God through the Angel Gabriel to Prophet Muhammed. Its basic theme is the relationship between God and his creations, yet at the same time it provides guidelines for a just society, proper human conduct, and an equitable economic system.

The following are the "Five Pillars" of Islam and are considered the framework of the Muslim life. The first pillar is faith in God and Muhammed as his messenger. The second pillar is prayer, performed five times a day. The third is concern for the needy, given as a tithe estimated at two and a half percent per annum. Next is self-purification. Every year in the month of Ramadan, all able Muslims fast from dawn till dusk, abstaining from food, drink, and sexual relations. Finally, physically and financially able followers are expected to make a once-in-a-lifetime pilgrimage to Mecca. About two million Muslims accomplish this trip each year.

Turkey adopted a secular government when it became a republic under the leadership of Kemal Ataturk.

The Call to Prayer

Five times a day the call to prayer drifts over each Muslim village, town, and city. Even though the Republic of Turkey is a secular country, ninety-eight percent of the population profess to be devout followers of the Islamic faith. Thus it is no surprise that the evocative sound of what has been called "Muslim music," the call to the faithful, is ubiquitous in the Middle East.

Every mosque, or prayer hall, has at least one minaret and a balcony where the muezzin, or crier, can fulfill his duty. He cries out to Muslims to stop their worldly tasks, face toward Mecca, and pray. The prayer, in essence, declares that there is "no God but Allah and Muhammed is his Prophet."

Muslims believe that by offering prayers five times a day they are strengthened and enlivened in their beliefs in Allah, and that they are inspired to a higher morality. This constant reminder of the devout's place in the greater universe is believed to purify the heart and prevent temptation towards wrong - doings and evil.

As far as Islam is concerned, faith without action and practice is a dead end. The act of prayer is one of the fundamental five practices, or Pillars of Islam, and is required of all devout Muslims. Thus the call to prayer plays an important role in the day and the life of every pious Muslim.

Islam is very simple. As a Muslim one should believe that There Is No God but One [Allah]. Allah is the only one whom a human should worship and thank, nothing else but Allah is worth glorifying. A companion statement to the first one is that Muhammed Peace Be Upon Him (PBUH) is the final messenger of Allah and he is that last prophet, no one else after him can claim prophecy. The second shell in Islam after this is the Faith (Eman, Iman), that is to believe (undoubtedly) In Allah, his Angels, his holy books, his prophets and messengers, his fate whether it is bad or good and finally the believe in the judgment day.

Muslims must respect other religions and in no way harm any one who is practicing his/her religion peacefully, especially when it comes to Christianity and Judaism since these religions are from Allah too. In fact Islam always stresses the fact that Islam is nothing but the final reform of the previous messages. The last thing Islam asks for is violence (the meaning of Islam in English is Peace or Submission). The most valuable thing in a Moslems life after Islam is the soul which Allah have pleased a human with it till he/she dies. A Muslim should work in this life for his/her optimum goal which is being pleased with entering Heaven and stay as far as one can from the acts which could lead to hell fire.

Many tours can be arranged in Turkey, there are very good land and air connections between the cities and historical sites. If you follow links on the right menu you will find some example itineraries of major routes. Some of these tours are run on regular basis year around and some only on private basis depending on the number of participants.

Apart of the ones you can find here, so many custom made itineraries can also be arranged upon your request such as; Religious Tours (Seven Churches of Apocalypse, Following Foot-steps of Saint Paul, Antioch, Nicea, Ephesus, Cappadocia, Jewish Heritage, Ottoman & Islamic Arts, etc.); Sports & Adventure Tours (Hiking, Rafting & Canoeing, Hunting, Jeep Safari, Rock Climbing, Skiing etc.); Bare-boat Renting, Private Boat Cruise, Gullet Charter, Rent-a-car, Limousine Hire, Hotel Reservations, Translation Services, Private Guiding Services, Rent-a-plane and so on...

There are also charter flights and special packages for Turkey from different European countries, especially for the holiday season.

PLEASE NOTE that I give guiding services and work as an official professional tour guide; all travel services such as hotel bookings, rent-a-car, rent-a-boat etc. will be provided by an official & reliable local travel agency in Turkey in order to secure your customer rights and fulfilling local regulations. Some of the regular tours are conducted in English, Italian and Spanish, but other languages can be arranged upon request, on private basis. Please call for prices, quotes and other information on traveling in Turkey easily.

Islam

• Islam in Turkey
• Islam in Turkey
• Haci Bektas Veli
• Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi
• Whirling Dervishes
• The Islamic faith
• The Holy Koran
• The Prophet Muhammed
• The five pillars of Islam
• Caliphs
• The Hajj and Eid
• The Ka’ba
• The mosque in Islamic religion
• Some elements of the mosque
• Muslim sects
• Sufism
• Muslim prayer
• Ramadan
• Friday prayers
• Circumcision
• Funerals in Islam
• Islamic terms 1
• Islamic terms 2
• See also
• Major mosques of Istanbul
• Religious sites in Turkey

The Jews of Turkey

The Jews of Turkey

There has been a Jewish community in Turkey (Asia Minor) since the 4th century B.C. such as in Sardis. According to the Old Testament, the prophet Abraham was born in Ur in Chaldea. Near the Euphrates (Firat) river, there is a historic and ancient city called Sanliurfa whose initial name was Ur. Jewish communities in Asia Minor continued to prosper throughout the Turkish conquest under Seljuks and Ottomans.

In modern times after the Republic, in the late 1930's and early 1940’s, Turkey again opened its homes and universities to Jews who had fled from Nazi oppression and persecution. In 1933 Ataturk invited to Turkey many university professors of Jewish origin who were threatened by Nazi cruelty. In the beginning of the 19th Century Turkey was home to more than 100,000 Jews.

Today Turkey's total Jewish population is around 26,000 (the second largest Jewish community in a Muslim country, being the first is Iran), with a great majority living in Istanbul. In 1992 the community celebrated the 500th anniversary of its existence in Turkey since the spring of 1492, when they came to Istanbul and accepted by the sultan Beyazit II shortly after the Moors were driven out of Granada, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain expelled all the Jews from their lands and ended the largest Jewish settlement in Europe. The community is 96% Sephardi, the rest is Ashkenazis. There are also about 100 Karaites live in Turkey, but usually they don't consider themselves a part of the Jewish community and don't take any part in its activities.

The Jewish people in Turkey contributed immensely to the economic, cultural and political life during the times of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic after the War of Liberation led by Ataturk.

The Jewish community of Turkey is recognized by the State through its Chief Rabbinate, and Chief Rabbi is called "Haham Basi" in Turkish.

Ankara

There are only about 100 Jews in Ankara.

Samanpazari Synagogue is opened only for wedding ceremonies, funerals and special occasions. Birlik Sokak, Samanpazari. Tel: +90 312 3116200.

Israel Legation, Vali Dr. Resit Caddesi, Farabi Sok No.43, Cankaya. Tel: +90 312 4264993.

Bursa

After the conquest of Bursa in 1324, Ottoman sultan Orhan ordered that the Jews of Bursa could build a synagogue, and thus the Etz ha-Hayyim used for over 600 years. Today there are only about 140 Jews left in the town and only two synagogues remain active.

Gerush Synagogue, Altiparmak Caddesi No.20A, in the old Jewish quarter. Services on Friday evening, Shabbat morning & festivals.

Istanbul

About 24.000 Jews live in Istanbul.

Chief Rabbinate of Turkey: Yemenici Abdullatif Sokak 23, Beyoglu - Istanbul

Tel: +90 212 2448794 / Fax: +90 212 2441980

Community Center: Buyuk Hendek Sokak, No.61, Galata. Tel: +90 212 2937566.

Synagogues:

There are several old synagogues in the Balat and Haskoy areas of the Golden Horn which are worth a visit. Today there is a total of 16 Synagogues in use in Istanbul, all Sephardi except one.

• Ashkenazi Congregation, Yuksek Kaldirim No.37, Galata. Tel: +90 212 2442975
• Italian Congregation, Okcu Musa Caddesi No:29, Galata. Tel: +90 212 2937784.
• Neve Shalom Synagogue: it is the largest and most famous synagogue in the city.
• Buyuk Hendek Caddesi No.61, near the Galata Tower. Tel: +90 212 2937566.
• Beth Israel Synagogue, Efe Sokak No.4, Osmanbey-Sisli. Tel: +90 212 2406599.
• The Synagogue at the summer resort of Buyukada lsland, is open from June till end-September, as well as for the High Holidays.
• Yanbol Synagogue: Vodina Street, No.16, Balat.
• Ahrida Synagogue: Vodina Street, No.9, Balat. Dating from the early 15th century, its most outstanding section is its Bima (Teva), built to resemble the prow of a ship, traditionally symbolizing Noah's Ark which landed on Ararat or the ships that brought Jews to Turkey who fled from Spain in 1492. Destroyed by a fire in the late 17th century, but reconstructed immediately during the Ottoman Tulip period. It's the oldest Synagogue in Istanbul.
• Etz Ahayim Synagogue: Muallim Naci Caddesi 38, Ortakoy (on the Bosphorus). Built in 1660 and destroyed by a fire in 1941, than reconstructed. The marble ark survived and remains are in the garden as a historic monument.

Quincentennial Foundation has opened a unique museum in Istanbul. The museum contains material relating to the Jewish members of the Ottoman Parliament, physicians at the Imperial Court, diplomats, academicians, police officers and civil servants.

Tel: +90 212 2753944 / Fax +90 212 2742607.

Kosher meat can be found at Istanbul and Izmir, the Chief Rabbinate can supply information about a kosher restaurant.

A Weekly newspaper called "Shalom" (Turkish & Ladino) with 8 pages, and a monthly journal in Turkish called Tiryaki are published as well.

Izmir

This community in Izmir, numbering around 2,300, is the second largest in Turkey. The dramatic decline in population during the early 1950s caused the shutting down of several community institutions. In the 1960s there functioned only one Jewish school and two synagogues, the community still maintained a hospital and a rabbinical court.

Jewish Community Council: Azizler Sokak 920/44, Guzelyurt.

Synagogues:

• Beth Israel, Mithatpasa Caddesi No.265, Karatas (near the Asansor-Lift).
• Shaar Ashamayan, a new synagogue located in the modern district of Alsancak that also houses the offices of the local rabbinate and community. 1390 Sokak 4/2, Alsancak.

Bikur Holim Hospital, Esrefpasa Caddesi No.3, Karatas. The Jewish hospital now admits non-Jewish patients as well.

For Kosher meat, please inquire at the Synagogue.

Battle of Kadesh (c.1275 BC)

Battle of Kadesh (c.1275 BC)

The Battle of Kadesh between the Hittites and Egyptians has been hailed as the first true battle for study, for it is the first time in history where enough historical evidence survives, from both sides, to paint a fairly accurate picture. The armies of these two empires were both powerful and massive. Ramesside Egypt is covered with depictions and inscriptions of the Battle, and an entire epic poem by an unknown Egyptian scribe, recalls the battle in 'vivid' detail:
"Now when the king looked behind him, he saw that he was blocked off by 2500 chariots. All the various warriors of the wretched king of Hatti encircled him, and of the numerous lands that were his allies; warriors from Aradus, Mese, Pedes, Keshkesh, Irun, Kizwanda, Cherb, Ekeret, Kadesh and Reke. They stood three to a chariot and had united against him. (Ceram p.177)

The two players in this momentous clash, are the Egyptian and Hittite empires. The Hittites had recently lost much of their northern Syrian territories to the Hurrians, but with the succession of Subbiluliumas, Hittite prestige was restored. After at first attempting an alliance with Egypt, he eventually decided against such a step, persuading Ugarit (the last main Egyptian stronghold in Syria) to defect, Subbiluliumas led a successful assault against the Pharaoh's forces in Syria, pushing Egyptian boundaries back behind Kadesh.

Occupied with her religious revolution, and then later by the end of XVIII Dynasty, Egypt was in no position to rebuke the Hittite advances. Attempting to curb their power, the widow of the young-king Tutankhamun asked for the betrothal of a son of Subbiluliumas, but the Hittite prince was assassinated on his way to her. With the rise of the more aggressive and military-apt Pharaoh's of the XIX Dynasty, Egypt resumed her efforts towards empire.

Sety I set the stage for the conflict between Egypt and the Hittites. In attempting to recover Amurru in Syria, he sought the Eleutheros Valley. This strip of land allowed its occupants an easy line of communication between the Mediterranean and northern Syria, and was easy on marching armies due to its flat land. Kadesh was the key-point to controlling the Eleutheros Valley, and an attempt to capture it proved unsuccessful for Sety.

His son, however, believed he could succeed. Ramesses II is one of the most famous pharaoh's in history, and his program of monuments and temples was one of the greatest in Egyptian history. Ramesses was a fine general and leader, but he often let his ambition outrun the reality, and his reign was quite a strain on Egypt's resources. His opponent in the Battle of Kadesh, was king Muwatallish. He rose to power in 1308 BCE, and was content with defending the current borders of the Hittite empire, roused to action only when required.

In 1275, Ramesses made the first move, leading an Egyptian force of around 20,000 beyond Egypt's borders. He proceeded to divide his army into four corps which were to march on Kadesh by way of the desert. A second, smaller army, was to take sail and land north of Byblos before setting out for Kadesh also - Ramesses attempted the first ever documented pincer movement!

Ramesses though, made a few important mistakes. Separating his army into four divisions, each marching up to a day apart, and crossing the Orontes river in Syria at various times, they were unable to support each other, with the Pharaoh compounding the problem by not creating adequate communication not only between the divisions, but between them and himself.

Ramesses set out for Kadesh with the first corps, the second following slightly behind, but with the 3rd and 4th divisions remaining on the right bank of the Orontes. Shortly after, Ramesses intercepted two "Bedouin" spies, who told the Pharaoh about the fearful flight of the Hittite enemy in face of the Egyptian forces. Ramesses believed them. He was later to realize that the Bedouins were actually Hittite!

As Ramesses ploughed onwards, a host of a 1000 Hittite charioteers descended upon the 2nd corps at a ford. The unsuspecting Egyptian army was no match for the heavy chariots, each manned with 4 or 5 Hittite warriors. Assistance was no where in sight, for by now 2 days separated the leading 1st corps and the remaining 3rd and 4th. The Egyptians fled.

Ramesses received word of the Hittite attack and sped in haste, with his small personal guard, to strategic hill near the marauding Hittites, erecting a fort and valiantly fending off his enemies, despite overwhelming numbers. Relief was at hand, when the second army that had traveled by boat, arrived and fought of the now disorganized Hittite forces. The enemy withdrew and took to Kadesh.

Ramesses gathered his armies, and returned to Egypt, where he declared the clash a victorious battle, adorning walls of all major temples with valiant scenes from the conflict.

The Battle of Kadesh was the last major clash between the Egyptian and Hittite empires. The result was a blow to both states, but in an indirect way. Though Muwatallish had halted Egyptian expansion and defined a peaceful border of the Hittite Empire, this battle had serious consequences for the Hittites. During the conflict with Egypt, Assyria had annexed Mitanni, removing the buffer that the Hittites so relied upon. For Egypt, the defeat of her army led to an all-out revolt by her Canaan vassals, and with them went the last great possessions of the Pharaoh's beyond the Sinai.

Hittite king Hattusilis III finally took over the throne and exiled the son of Muwatallish, who was very unpopular at the time. When Hattusilis evaluated the condition of his empire and that of Assyria, he became increasingly friendly with Egypt. In the twenty-first year of Ramesses’ reign, ca. 1259, Hattusilis and Ramesses created a diplomatic treaty, the first document of its kind. Hattusilis sealed this deal by marrying his daughter to Ramesses. It contained four important conditions:

a) The continuation of the treaty concluded between Ramesses and Muwatallish, concerning non-aggression.
b) Mutual assistance in the form of military aid.
c) Security in the problem of Hattusilis’ succession
d) Mutual extradition of fugitives.

This pact, reflected in the relieves of Abu Simbel, gave the people of the Near East the great accomplishment of nearly seventy years of peace.

Today an enlarged copy of this peace pact made of cuneiform tablet found in Hattusas hangs in the United Nations building in New York, demonstrating to modern statesmen that international treaties are a tradition going back to the earliest civilizations.

(.go to top.)

Peace Pact

1. The twenty-first year, the twenty-first day of Tybi,[1] in the reign of King RA-USER-mA,[2] approved by the Sun, Son of the Sun, RAmEssu-MERIAmEN,[3] endowed with life eternal and for ever; lover of AMEN-RA, HARmAcHu, PTAH of Memphis, MAUT Lady of Asheru, and CHENsu-NEFERHoTEP; invested upon the throne of HoRus, among the living, like his father HARmACHU, eternally and for ever.

2. On this day behold His Majesty was in the city of the House of Ramessu-Meriamen, making propitiations to his father AMEN-RA, to HARmAcHu, to AToM Lord of On, to AMEN of Ramessu-Meriamen, to PTAH of Ramessu-Meriamem, to SuTEcH the most glorious son of NUT; may they grant him an eternity of thirty-years' festivals, an infinity of years of peace, all lands, all nations, being bowed down beneath his feet for ever.

3. There came a royal Herald (nearly a whole line is erased here; the sellsc is, two royal Heralds came, bringing a tablet of silver, which)

4. the Grand-Duke of Kheta,[4] KHETA-sIRA, had sent to the King to beg for peace of King RA-USER-mA, approved of the Sun, Son of the Sun, RAmEssu-MERIAmEN, endowed with life for ever and ever, like his father the Sun continually. Copy of the plate of silver which the Grand-Duke of Kheta, KHETAsIRA, sent to the King by the hand of his Herald

5. TARTIsBu, and his Herald RAmEs, to beg for peace of His Majesty RA-USER-mA, approved of the Sun, Son of the Sun, RAmEssu-MERIAmEN, Chief' of rulers, whose boundaries extend to every land at his pleasure, the covenant made by the Grand-Duke of ICheta, KHETAsIRA, the puissant, son of MARASARA,

6. the Grand-Duke of Kheta, the puissant, grandson of SAPALALA, the Grand-Duke of Kheta, the puissant; upon the plate of silver, with RA-USER-mA, approved of the Sun, the great ruler of Egypt, the puissant, son of RAmEN-mA (Seti Meneptah I) the great ruler of Egypt, the puissant, grandson of RA-MEN-PERU (Ramessu I).

7. the great ruler of Egypt, the puissant : The good conditions of peace and fraternity ... to eternity, which were aforetime from eternity. This was an arrangement of the great ruler of Egypt with the great Prince of Kheta, by way of covenant, that god might cause no hostility to arise between them ! Now it happened

8. in the time of MAuTENARA, the Grand-Duke of Kheta, my brother, that he fought with... the great ruler of Egypt. But thus it shall be henceforth, even from this day-Behold; KHETAsIRA the Grand-Duke of Kheta, covenants to adhere to the arrangement made by the Sun, made by SuTEcH, concerning the land of Egypt,

9. with the land of Kheta, to cause no hostility to arise between them for ever. Behold, this it is--KHETAsIRA the Grand-Duke of Kheta covenants with RA-USER-mA, approved by the Sun, the great ruler of Egypt from this day forth, that good peace and good brotherhood shall be between us for ever.

10. He shall fraternize with me, he shall be at peace with me, and I will fraternize with him, I will be at peace with him for ever. It happened in the time of MAUTENARA the Grand-Duke of Kheta, my brother, after his decease, KHETAsIRA sat as

ll. Grand-Duke of Kheta upon the throne of his father--Behold I am at one in heart with RAmEssu-MERIAmEN, the great ruler of Egypt... of peace, of brotherhood; it shall be better than the peace and the brotherhood, which was before this. Behold, I the Grand-Duke of Kheta with

12. RAmEssu-MERIAmEN the great ruler of Egypt, am in good peace, in good brotherhood ; the children's children of the Grand-Duke of Kheta shall be in good brotherhood and peace with the children's children of RAmEssu-MERIAmEN the great ruler of Egypt, As our (treaty) of brotherhood, and our arrangements

13. (made for the land of Egypt) with the land of Kheta, so to them also shall be peace and brotherhood for ever; there shall no hostility arise between them for ever. The Grand-Duke of Kheta shall not invade the land of Egypt for ever, to carry away anything from it; nor shall RAmEssu-MERIAmEN the great ruler of Egypt invade the land

14. of Kheta for ever to carry away anything from it for ever. The treaty of alliance which was even from the time of SAPALALA the Grand-Duke of Kheta, as well as the treaty of alliance which was in the time of MATENARA (Mura-sara) the Grand-Duke of Kheta my father, if I fulfill it, behold RAmEssu-MERIAmEN the great ruler of Egypt shall fulfill it

15. ....together with us, in each case, even from this day, we will fulfill it, executing the design of alliance. If any enemy shall come to the lands of RAmEssu-MERIAmEN the great ruler of Egypt, and he shall send to the Grand Duke of Kheta saying, Come and give me help against him, then shall the Grand-Duke of Kheta

16. ....the grand-Duke of Kheta to smite the enemy; but if it be that the Grand-Duke of Kheta shall not come (himself), he shall send his infantry and his cavalry... to smite his enemy... of the anger of RAmEssu-MERIAmE

17. ....the slaves of the gates, and they shall do any damage to him, and he shall go to smite them, then shall the Grand-Duke of Kheta together with...

18. ....to come to help to smite his enemies, if it shall please RAmEssu-MERIAmEN the great ruler of Egypt to go,he shall...

19. ....to return all answer to the land of Kheta. But if the servants of the Grand-Duke of Kheta shall invade him, namely RAmEssu-MERIAmEN ....

(Lines 20 and 21 are nearly erased.)

22. from the lands of RAmEssu-MERIAmEN the great ruler of Egypt and they shall come to the Grand-Duke of Kheta, then shall the Grand-Duke of Kheta not receive them, but the Grand-Duke of Kheta shall send them to RA-USER-mA, approved of the Sun, the great ruler of Egypt...

23. ....and they shall come to the land of Kheta to do service to any one, they shall not be added to the land of . Kheta, they shall be given up to RAmEssu-MERIAmEN the great ruler of Egypt. Or if there shall pass over...

24. ....coming from the land of Kheta, and they shall come to RAmEssu-MERIAmEN the great ruler of Egypt, then shall not RA-USER-mA, approved of the Sun, the great ruler of Egypt...

25. ....and they shall come to the land of Egypt to do service of any sort, then shall not RA-USER-mA, approved of the Sun, the great ruler of Egypt, claim them; he shall cause them to be given up to the Grand-Duke of Kheta... .

26. ....the tablet of silver, it is declared by the thousand

gods, the gods male (warriors), the gods female, those which are of the land of Kheta, in concert with the thousand gods, the gods male, the gods female, those which are of the land of Egypt, those...

27. ....SuTEcH of Kheta, SuTEch ofthe city ofA.... SuTEcH of the city of Taaranta, SUTEcH of the city of Pairaka, SuTEcH of the city of Khisasap, SuTEcH of the city of Sarasu, SuTEch of the city of Khira(bu), SUTEcH....

28. ....SuTEcH of the city of Sarapaina, AsTARATA of Kheta, the god of Taitatkherri, the god of Ka....

29. ....the goddess of the city of.....the goddess of Tain...., the god of.....

30. of the hills of the rivers of the land of Kheta, the gods of the land of Kheta, the gods of the land of Tawatana, AMEN the Sun, SuTEcH, the gods male, the gods female, of the hills, the rivers of the land of Egypt, the... the the great sea, the winds, the clouds. These words

31. which are on the tablet of silver of the land of Kheta, and of the land of Egypt, Whosoever shall not observe them, the thousand gods of the land of Kheta, in concert with the thousand gods of the land of Egypt shall be (against) his house, his family, his servants. But whosoever shall observe these words which are in the tablet of silver, be he of Kheta....

32. ....the thousand gods of the land of Kheta, in concert with the thousand gods of the land of Egypt shall give health, shall give life to his (family) together with . himself together with his servants. If there shall pass over one man of the (land of Egypt) or two, or three

33. (and they shall go to the land of Kheta then shall the Grand-Duke of Kheta cause them to be) given up again to RA-USER-mA, approved of the Sun, the great ruler of Egypt, but whosoever shall be given up to RAmEssu-MERIAmEN, the great ruler of Egypt,

34. let not his crime be set up against him let not... himself, his wives, his children...... If there shall pass over a man from the land of Kheta be it one only be it two, be it three, and they come to RA-usER-mA, approved of the Sun

35. the great ruler of Egypt let RAmEssu-MERIAmEN the great ruler of Egypt seize (them and cause them to be) given up to the Grand-Duke of Kheta (but whosoever shall be delivered up... ) himself his wives, his children, moreover let him not be smitten to death, moreover let him not (suffer ?)

36. in his eyes, in his mouth, in his feet, moreover let not any crime be set up against him. That which is upon the tablet of silver upon its front side is the likeness of the figure of SuTEcH... of SuTEcH the great ruler of heaven, the director of the Treaty made by KHETAsIRA the great ruler

37. of Kheta...

38. ....

[1] The fifth month.

[2] Rameses II

[3] Rameses II

[4] Hittites

Greetings to you traveller!

Greetings to you traveller!
We hope you've come here prepared, for this is a time machine
you are about to set foot on.

We named this time machine Turizm.net, the network of Turkish Tourism and Travel. It is designed to guide you through the paths of a wonderland, Turkey. The paths that not many countries on this earth have had anything similar to; a wonderland that has had hundreds of civilizations born in; a wonderland that has bred many a wind-carried legend and an unforgettable myth travelling from mouth to mouth, sailing from sea to sea; a wonderland where saints of the great religions have left their footsteps on; where kingdoms have been founded and where kingdoms have been destroyed; a wonderland where swords have pillaged and plundered and where pen has been mightier than swords; where hopes have been generously granted to every inhabitant, and where dreams have been lost; and still most important of all, dear traveller, a wonderland that has friendly people with wonderfully warm hospitality.

We, the creators of this site, originating from the same lands, greet you with the same feelings and hope that you will share the same enthusiastic view when you are through.

The journey with Turizm.net is starting. You can go back to the time of the Alexander to find him fighting with the Persians or simply indulge in a shopping spree in an old bazaar atmosphere in Istanbul. Maybe you would like to reserve your hotel room or purchase your tour for an inexpensive price, before you get to Turkey.

The range is wide and choices are limitless. And they are all yours.

The Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire is also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, for it was in fact a continuation of the Roman Empire into its eastern part. At its greatest size, during the 500's AD, Byzantine included parts of southern and eastern Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa.

The Byzantine people called themselves Romans although they were actually descendants of various ancient peoples and they spoke Greek. The word Byzantine, in fact, comes from "Byzantium," which is the Greek name for a city on the Bosphorus. The Greeks colonized the area first, in the mid-600's BC, even before Alexander the Great brought his troops into Anatolia (334 BC). Greek culture continued its influence long after the region became part of the Roman Empire, in the 100's BC. But it was when Roman emperor Constantine the Great moved the capital of the Empire from Rome to Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople (Istanbul today), in 330 AD, that the Byzantine Empire really began. It lasted over 1000 years, ending finally in 1453, when the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul.

Christianity had a strong influence on Byzantine art, music, and architecture. Since Constantinople was the political center of the Empire, it also was the educational center, where future government officials learned to read and write the language of ancient Greece. Thus this period produced remarkable works in history as well as fine poetry, and much religious prose. All the visual arts flourished, too. Most of the artists worked as servants of the court or belonged to religious orders, and they remained anonymous. Ivory carvings, Byzantine crosses, and "illuminations," or small manuscript paintings, attest to their skill. Almost all that survives of the Byzantine architecture are its churches, with their glorious frescoes and mosaics. With Hagia Sophia as an example, their architects and artisans reached heady heights of magnificence, indeed.

For 1100 years, the Byzantine's were able to maintain control of their empire, although somewhat tenuously at times; the Empire's expansion and prosperity were balanced by internal religious schisms (such as Nika Riot) and recurring wars with enemies from the outside. Finally, weakened by recurring waves of attack, the Ottomans overcame the exhausted Byzantines and a new era of leadership began. The Byzantine Empire, however, had left its mark on the culture, never to be entirely erased even after the Conquest.

Byzantine Emperors

Year / Emperor

323–337 Constantine I (The Great)
337–361 Constantius
361–363 Julian (The Apostate)
363–364 Jovianos
364–378 Valens
379–395 Theodosius I (The Great)
395–408 Arcadius
408–450 Theodosius II
450–457 Marcianus
457–474 Leo I
474 Leo II
474–491 Zeno
491–518 Anastasius I
518–527 Justin I
527–565 Justinian I (The Great)
565–578 Justin II
578–582 Tiberius, Constantinus
582–602 Mauritius
602–610 Phocas I
610–641 Heraclius I
641 Constantine III
641 Heracleon
641–668 Constans II
668–685 Constantine IV
685–695 Justinian II
695–698 Leontius II
698–705 Tiberius III, Apsimar
705–711 Justinian II (restored)
711–713 Philippicus
713–715 Anastasius II
715–717 Theodosius III
717–741 Leo III, the Isaurian
741–775 Constantine V, Kopronymus
775–780 Leo IV
780–797 Constantine VI
797–802 Irene
802–811 Nicephorus I
811 Stauracius
811–813 Michael I, Rhangabé
813–820 Leo V, the Armenian
820–829 Michael II
829–842 Theophilus II
842–867 Michael III
842–866 Bardas
867 Theophilus II

Macedonian Emperors

867–886 Basil I, the Macedonian
886–912 Leo VI, the Wise
912–913 Alexander III
913–959 Constantine VII, Porphyrogenitus
919–944 Romanus I, Lecapenus
959–963 Romanus II
963–969 Nicephorus II, Phocas
969–976 John I, Tzimisces
976–1025 Basil II, Bulgaroktonus
1025–28 Constantine VIII
1028–50 Zoë
1028–34 Romanus III, Argyrus
1034–41 Michael IV, the Paphlagonian
1041–42 Michael V, Calaphates
1042–54 Constantine IX, Monomachus
1054–56 Theodora
1056–57 Michael VI, Stratioticus
1057–59 Isaac I, Comnenus
1059–67 Constantine X, Dukas
1067 Andronicus
1067 Constantine XI
1067–71 Romanus IV, Diogenes
1071–78 Michael VII, Parapinakes
1078–81 Nicephorus III, Botaniates
1081–1118 Alexius I, Comnenus
1118–43 John IV, Calus
1143–80 Manuel I
1180–83 Alexius II
1182–85 Andronicus I
1185–95 Isaac II, Angelus-Comnenus
1195–1203 Alexius III, Angelus
1203–04 Alexius IV
1204 Alexius V, Dukas

Latin Emperors (Crusaders)

1204–05 Baldwin I
1205–16 Henry VI
1216–17 Peter de Courtenay
1218–28 Robert de Courtenay
1228–61 Baldwin II

Nicaean Emperors

1206–22 Theodore I, Lascaris
1222–54 John Dukas Vatatzes
1254–59 Theodore II, Lascaris
1258–61 John IV, Lascaris

The Paleologi

1261–82 Michael VIII
1282–1328 Andronicus II
1295–1320 Michael IX
1328–41 Andronicus III
1341–47 John V
1347–54 John VI, Cantacuzene
1355–76 John V (restored)
1376–79 Andronicus IV
1379–91 John V (restored)
1390 John VII
1391–1425 Manuel II
1425–48 John VIII
1448–53 Constantine XI, Dragases; until the conquest of Constantinopolis.

Founder: METE HAN

Territory: Siberia to the North, Tibet and Kashmir to the south, Pacific Ocean to the east, and Caspian Sea to the west (approximately 18 million sq kilometers)

Emperors:

• Yabgu Teoman - Karahan (Tou-Man Tovman) (? - 209 BC)
• Mete Bagatir (209 - 174 BC)
• Lao - Shang (174 - 161 BC)
• Chun - Chen Yabgu (Kun) (161 - 126 BC)
• I-Chin-Hsien (Icihise) Yabgu (126 - 114 BC)
• Wu-Weri (Uvey) Yabgu (114 - 105 BC)
• Wu-Shih-Lu-Erh (U-Su-Liu-Usilu) Yabgu (105 - 102 BC)
• Chu-Li-Hu (Hiu-Li-Hu-Guylihu) Yabgu (102 - 101 BC)
• Chu-Ti-Hu (Tsie-Ti-Heu-Tsuydiheu) Yabgu (101 - 96 BC)
• Hu-Lu-Ku-(Hu-Lo-Ku = Hulugu) Yabgu (96 - 85 BC)
• Khuandi Yabgu (85 - 68 BC)
• Khuyluy Yabgu (68 - 60 BC)
• Uven-Guydi Yabgu (60 - 58 BC)
• Khukhasie Yabgu (58 - 56 BC)
• Chichi Yabgu (56 - 36 BC)
• Joti Yabgu (31 - 20 BC)
• Seuse - Joti Yabgu (20 - 12 BC)
• Cheya - Joti Yabgu (12 - 8 BC)
• Uchjolu - Joti Yabgu (8 BC - 13 AD)
• Uluyjoti Yabgu (13 - 18 AD)
• Shikao-Joti Yabgu (18 - 46)
• Vutatiho Yabgu (46)
• Panu Yabgu (46 - 83)
• Sanmuldutzu Yabgu (83 - 84)
• Yuliu Yabgu (84 - 89)
• Yuchukien Yabgu (89 - 93)
• Ankuo Yabgu (93 - 94)
• Tingtoshi - Suyheuti Yabgu (94 - 98)
• Vanshichi - Suyti Yabgu (98 - 124)
• Vuchihu - Shihcho Yabgu (124 - 127)
• Tejoshi - Suytsieu Yabgu (127 - 140)
• Chenieu Yabgu (140 - 143)
• Hulanjoshi Suytsieu Yabgu (143 - 147)
• Ilingshi - Suytsieu Yabgu (147 - 172)
• Totejoshi - Suytsieu Yabgu (172 - 177)
• Huching Yabgu (177 - 179)
• Kiangkiu Yabgu (179 - 188)
• Techishi - Suyheu Yabgu (188 - 195)
• Huchutsiuen Yabgu (195 - 216)

The Seljuk Turks

The Seljuk Turks

In the 11th century, a Turcoman tribe called the Seljuks set up a state in Iran, with Isfahan as their capital. The Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad was so taken in by their military prowess, that he sanctioned their leader, Tugrul Bey, with the title "King of the East and West" thus designating the Seljuk warlord as his temporal deputy.

But the Seljuks under Tugrul and his successor, Alp Arslan, were not content with controlling only their piece of the disintegrating Arab empire: recent converts to Islam, they saw themselves as the rightful heirs to the lands conquered during and immediately after the time of the Prophet Muhammed, in particular, the heretical lands of the Levant and Egypt. Indeed, in order to secure their own flanks, Isfahan entered into numerous negotiations with the Byzantine emperors of Constantinople (Istanbul).

But however sedentary and acculturated the Seljuk chieftains had become, the situation on the borderlands between the Seljuks and the Byzantines was anything but peaceful. Turcoman gazis (warriors for the faith, and generally a very motley crew) and Byzantine akritoi (mercenaries) were enrolled as private troops for various Armenian - Byzantine landowners but engaged in private looting themselves. The Seljuks and Byzantines constantly accused each other of bad faith and for breaching the general peace. It was not until the third quarter of the 11th century , when the situation reached a critical point that the Byzantines, under Emperor (or Basileus) Romanus IV Diogenes, decided to preempt the nascent Seljuk power on their eastern frontier and re-conquer Armenia.

Using ancient Harput (modern Elazig) as his base, Diogenes crossed the Euphrates (the classic demarcation of east and west) to confront the Seljuk army on the field of Manzikert (Malazgirt), north of Lake Van in 1071. Although they vastly outnumbered the irregular Turkish horsemen, the Byzantine Christian troops could scarcely have selected a worse venue: the light-riding Turks feigned a retreat, lured the main Byzantine force into a loop, and showered the heat-exhausted Christian host with arrows before closing on three sides with the scimitar. The booty for the victors on "that dreadful day" included the vanquished Diogenes himself.

Remarkably, the Seljuks did not drag the beaten Diogenes back home in victory, but released him for a ransom and cession of Byzantine land, and reentered a period of often uneasy peace with Constantinople (Istanbul) again. Indeed, the two forces actually stood together against the Mongol invasion of the 13th century. But it was a vain defense as neither Christian nor Muslim were spared the sword as the Mongol hordes rolled across the steppe into Anatolia.

The reigns of Alp Arslan and his son, Malik Shah, were the most glorious years of the great Seljuks of Isfahan; the death of the latter marked the decline of the great Seljuks and by 1192 the dynasty ended in the same obscurity with which it had begun, unable to cope with the pressures from the Crusaders, the caliph and new Turcoman clans arriving from the east due to the increasing power of the Mongols, who were soon to erupt from the deepest recesses of Central Asia to sack much of the known world before returning just as quickly to the frontiers of China.

Following the decline of the great Seljuks and the onslaught of the Mongols, lesser Seljuk clans established their own principalities throughout Anatolia and made the small Christian states in the area their vassals. Through inter-marriage, they greatly facilitated the cultural syncretism of the area. The presence of so many petty Muslim states in east and central Anatolia explain the abundance of Seljuk architecture in modern Turkey, with some of the best examples of this so-called "poetry in stone" to be seen in Erzurum, Divrigi, Sivas and Konya. Of these, Konya is perhaps the most impressive. It was where the Sufi mystic, Celaleddin Rumi, (Mevlana or "our master") graced the court of Alaaddin Keykubat I, the Sultan of Rum and initiated the peculiar whirling dervish ceremony in an effort to seek spiritual union with the Creator himself. The cultural effervescence at Konya, however, met with the same abrupt and unhappy end as the others at the hands of the indiscriminate Mongol hordes of the descendants of Cengiz Khan.

Just as they had dealt the Byzantines a decisive blow at Manzikert (Malazgirt) two centuries before, the now settled Seljuks could not resist the most recent wave of nomads from the steppe. On June 26, 1243, despite Byzantine auxiliaries sent by the Seljuk Sultan's "ally" in Constantinople (Istanbul), the once mighty Seljuk army was utterly routed at Köse Dagi outside the quintessentially Seljuk city of Sivas. The remaining Turkish clans scattered westwards before being further defeated by the Mongols, until they had no choice but to finally accept their role as mere vassals in the greater scheme of things. But no sooner had the Mongol tide surged over the region than it withdrew once more, leaving behind several unimportant mini-states led by petty chieftains who might well have remained utterly obscure but for one of their number on the fringe of the Byzantine state: Osman, the son of Ertugrul, the horseman destined to found a new empire that stretched from Morocco in the west to Iran in the east, and from the Yemen in the south to the Crimea in the north. This new empire was called as Ottomans.

Necmettin Erbakan (Sinop 1926- )

Former prime minister in Turkey, leader of coalition government between the Welfare (Refah) Party (his own) and the True Path Party (1996-1997). Professor in physics. Lived in Germany for many years, where he worked as a scientist. Minister in coalition government under Bülent Ecevit in 1974.

Erbakan was one of the founders of the Welfare Party (RP), which started to grow tremendously in the recent few years. In 1980 Erbakan was the leader of pro-Islamic protests, that resulted in a military coup, and Erbakan's party was banned, and he was closed out from politics for 7 years. It is believed that the Welfare Party's politics has less support than the 1995 elections results, which was 21%. But people cast their ballots for it, as it has a high reputation for honesty in municipal governments. Many have also supported the Welfare Party because it has a politics that helps the least fortunate in the Turkish society. Erbakan raised the wages for civil servants with 50% shortly after taking office.

As prime minister Erbakan has chosen a moderate line, but still oriented himself more in direction of other Muslim states, without cutting any ties to the West, which many observers expected. In Western media, his improved relations with Iran and Libya's Ghadhafi have been hard to accept. Erbakan expressed views in the electoral campaign, which he left when he was appointed prime minister, and he now supports Turkey's application for membership in the European Union (EU).

Erbakan's Welfare Party was outlawed in 1997 after a long campaign leaded by the Turkish military and forces and most of the self-conscious people afraid of a disintegration of the country with a possible Islamization, and the chances of an escalation of the conflict with Kurdish nationalists. Welfare Party (RP) changed its name into Wisdom Party (FP), with its leader Recai Kutan, but its members say that this is not a continuation of RP but a new party called FP.

Erbakan was banned from politics for 5 years until 2003.

The Orient Express

augurated in 1883 by a French railway company, the Orient Express soon became the stuff legends are made of. Originally traveling from Paris through Munich, Vienna and Sophia to the Sirkeci station of Constantinople, passengers could continue the journey, traveling by boat across the Bosphorus to the Haydarpasa Railway Station to join the Taurus Express to Anatolia or even to Bagdad. But ususally many passengers decided to stay at the Pera Palas hotel for their vacation.

Although the route varied throughout the years it ran from Paris to Istanbul, a distance of 3186 kilometers.

A monument to the hedonistic days of the late 19th and early 20th century it was the most luxurious long distance rail journey in the history of travel. Royalty, aristocracy, the rich and the famous traveled regularly on the Orient Express. Its passenger list read like a volume of "who's who". Gourmet chefs, chandeliers, fully equipped bathrooms, staterooms and dining rooms on par with the Ritz were all pan of the train. It takes on a myth like quality in our current times of 'functional' travel.

Woven into the plot of many books, it is remembered today mainly through Agatha Christie's book (and later a film) "Murder on the Orient Express". She also spent some time at the Pera Palas hotel which today her room became the most famous and requested by almost every book appassionate visiting Istanbul.

The Orient Express slowly declined in the 1930s with the Simplon Orient Express and the Arlberg Orient Express partially replacing it.

In the 1980s the Orient Express was re-introduced by investers running from Paris to Vienna (1390km) and from Stuttgart to Prague (1253km). The "Orient Express" surely being a misnomer for these routes.

Unfortunately in the 1990s we are more interested in the speed we can reach our destination rather than the journey itself. The days of opulent train travel are long gone but the mere mention of the name Orient Express still evoke visions of past glories.

In 1998 Orient Express re-visited Istanbul once again on a special journey realized by some travel agents who wanted to remember people its past glorious.

History of Istanbul

See also

• Museums
• Palaces
• Mosques
• Churches
• Castles
• Bazaars
• Clickable Map
• Turkish Baths
• Hospitals
• Restaurants
• Hotels
• Historical Weather
• Excursions

What is now called Asian Istanbul was probably inhabited by people as early as 3000 BC. Eventually, in the 7th century, Greek colonists led by King Byzas established the colony of Byzantium, the Greek name for a city on the Bosphorus. Byzas chose the spot after consulting an oracle of Delphi who told him to settle across from the "land of the blind ones." Indeed, Byzas concluded, earlier settlers must have been deprived of their sight to have overlooked this superb location at the mouth of the Bosphorus strait. This proved an auspicious decision by Byzas, as history has shown Istanbul's location important far beyond what these early Greek settlers might possibly have conceived. Byzas gave his name to the city: Byzantium.

In the early 100's BC, it became part of the Roman Empire and in 306 AD, Emperor Constantine the Great made Byzantium capital of the entire Roman Empire. From that point on, the city was known as Constantinople.

The mid 400's AD was a time of enormous upheaval in the empire. Barbarians conquered the western Roman Empire while the Eastern, also called the Byzantine Empire, kept Constantinople as its capital. In 532 during the reign of Justinian I, antigovernment riots destroyed the city. It was rebuilt, and outstanding structures such as Hagia Sophia stand as monuments to the heights Byzantine culture reached.

The attribute that made the city so desirable, its incomparable location for trade and transport between three continents, was also its nemesis. For the next several hundred years Persians, Arabs, nomadic peoples, and members of the Fourth Crusade (who for a time governed the city) attacked Constantinople.

Finally, weakened by almost constant battle, the Ottoman Turks lead by Sultan Mehmet II conquered Constantinople in 1453. Renamed Istanbul, it became the third and last capital of the Ottoman Empire. It was the nerve center for military campaigns that were to enlarge the Ottoman Empire dramatically. By the mid 1500's, Istanbul, with a population of almost half a million, was a major cultural, political, and commercial center. Ottoman rule continued until it was defeated in WWI and Istanbul was occupied by the allies.

When the Republic of Turkey was born in 1923 after the War of Independence, Kemal Ataturk moved the capital to the city of Ankara. But Istanbul has continued to expand dramatically; today its population is approximately 13 million and increases at an estimated 700,000 immigrants per year. Industry has expanded even as tourism has grown. It continues to be a city that creates its own history at the intersection where both Continents meet.

There are many interesting museums, castles, palaces, mosques, churches, and historic hammams. Some of the interesting districts of the city are: Haydarpasa, Uskudar, Eyup, Galata, Perapalas, Ortaköy, Bosphorus, Taksim, Eminönü and Sultanahmet. Princess Islands are a popular summer resort for local people.

The mid 400's AD was a time of enormous upheaval in the empire. Barbarians conquered the western Roman Empire while the Eastern, also called the Byzantine Empire, kept Constantinople as its capital. In 532 during the reign of Justinian I, antigovernment riots destroyed the city. It was rebuilt, and outstanding structures such as Hagia Sophia stand as monuments to the heights Byzantine culture reached.

The attribute that made the city so desirable, its incomparable location for trade and transport between three continents, was also its nemesis. For the next several hundred years Persians, Arabs, nomadic peoples, and members of the Fourth Crusade (who for a time governed the city) attacked Constantinople.

Finally, weakened by almost constant battle, the Ottoman Turks lead by Sultan Mehmet II conquered Constantinople in 1453. Renamed Istanbul, it became the third and last capital of the Ottoman Empire. It was the nerve center for military campaigns that were to enlarge the Ottoman Empire dramatically. By the mid 1500's, Istanbul, with a population of almost half a million, was a major cultural, political, and commercial center. Ottoman rule continued until it was defeated in WWI and Istanbul was occupied by the allies.

When the Republic of Turkey was born in 1923 after the War of Independence, Kemal Ataturk moved the capital to the city of Ankara. But Istanbul has continued to expand dramatically; today its population is approximately 13 million and increases at an estimated 700,000 immigrants per year. Industry has expanded even as tourism has grown. It continues to be a city that creates its own history at the intersection where both Continents meet.

There are many interesting museums, castles, palaces, mosques, churches, and historic hammams. Some of the interesting districts of the city are: Haydarpasa, Uskudar, Eyup, Galata, Perapalas, Ortaköy, Bosphorus, Taksim, Eminönü and Sultanahmet. Princess Islands are a popular summer resort for local people.

Mimar Sinan

He is an architect who grew up in one of the most splendid periods of the Ottoman State, and who contributed to this era with his works.

Various sources state that Sinan was the architect of around 360 structures which included 84 mosques, 51 small mosques ("mescit"), 57 schools of theology ("medrese"), 7 schools for Koran reciters ("darülkurra"), 22 mausoleums ("türbe"), 17 Alm Houses ("imaret"), 3 hospitals ("darüssifa"), 7 aquaducts and arches, 48 inns ("Caravansarai"), 35 palaces and mansions, 8 vaults and 46 baths. Sinan, who held the position of chief architect of the palace, which meant being the top manager of construction works of the Ottoman Empire, for nearly 50 years, worked with a large team of assistants consisting of architects and master builders.

The development and maturing stages of Sinan can be marked with three major works. The first two of these are in Istanbul - Sehzade Mosque which he calls his apprenticeship period work, Süleymaniye Mosque which is the work of his qualification stage, and Selimiye Mosque in Edirne the product of his master stage. Sehzade Mosque is the first of the grand mosques Sinan has created. Mihrimah Sultan Mosque which is also known as the Uskudar Quay Mosque was completed in the same year and has an original design with its main dome supported by three half domes. When Sinan reached the age of 70, he had completed the Süleymaniye Mosque and its Complex. This building, situated on one of the hills of Istanbul facing the Golden Horn, and built in the name of Süleyman the Magnificent between 1550-57, is one of the symbolic monuments of the period. The diameter of the dome which exceeds 31 meters at Selimiye Mosque which Sinan completed when he was 80, is the most significant example of the level of achievement Sinan reached in architecture. Mimar Sinan has reached his artistic summit with the design, architecture, tile decorations, land stone workmanship displayed at Selimiye.

Another area of architecture where Sinan delivered unique projects are the mausoleums. Mausoleum of Sehzade Mehmed gets attention with its exterior decorations and sliced dome. Rüstem Pasha mausoleum is a very attractive structure in classical style. The mausoleum of Süleyman the Magnificent which is one of his most interesting experimentations has an octagonal body and flat dome. Selim II Mausoleum with has a square plan and is one of the best examples of Turkish mausoleum architecture. Sinan's own mausoleum which is located at the north-east part of the Süleymaniye complex on the other hand, is a very plain structure.

Sinan, in the bridges he built, has masterfully combined art with functionalism. The largest of his work in this group is the nearly 635 m. long Büyükçekmece Bridge in Istanbul. Other significant examples are Silivri Bridge outside of Istanbul, Lüleburgaz (Sokullu Mehmet Pasha) Bridge on Lüleburgaz River, Sinanli Bridge over Ergene River and Drina Bridge which has became the title of the famous novel of Yugoslav author Ivo Andriç.

While Sinan was maintaining and improving the water supply system of Istanbul, he has built arched aqueducts at several locations within the city. Maglova Arch over Alibey River, which is 257 meter long, 35 meters high and displaying two layers of arches is one of the best samples of its kind.

The Structure of Government

Officially, the Sultan was the government. He enjoyed absolute power and, in theory at least, was personally involved in every governmental decision. In the Ottoman experience of government, everything representing the state government issued from the hands of the Sultan himself.

The Sultan also assumed the title of Caliph, or supreme temporal leader, of Islam. The Ottomans claimed this title for several reasons: the two major holy sites, Mecca and Medina, were part of the Empire, and the primary goal of the government was the security of Muslims around the world, particularly the security of the Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca. As Caliph, the Sultan was responsible for Islamic orthodoxy. Almost all of the military conquests and annexations of other countries were done for one of two reasons: to guarantee the safe passage of Muslims to Mecca (the justification for invading non-Muslim territories) and the rooting out of heterodox or heretical Islamic practices and beliefs (the justification for invading or annexing Muslim territories).

Historians simply can't agree on how the Sultanate was passed from generation to generation among the Ottomans. In the early history of the Empire, the Sultanate clearly passes from father to eldest son; in 1603, at the death of Ahmed I (1603-1617), the Sultanate passed to the brother of the Sultan. Still, the Ottomans did not seem to have a hereditary system based on primogeniture (crown passes to the eldest son) or seniority (crown passes to the next oldest brother). In both Turkish and Mongol monarchical systems, the passing of the crown is a haphazard affair. Both the Turkish and Mongol peoples believed that the crown fell to the most worthy inheritor. Each individual in the hereditary line, brothers and sons, were equally entitled to the crown. This meant that successions were almost always major struggles among contending parties. The Ottomans seem to have operated in a similar system. When a Sultan passed away, the crown, it was believed, fell to the most worthy successor (almost always the eldest son). Selim I had to fight for the Sultanate, but Süleyman was the only son of Selim and so inherited the crown without a struggle. Once a Sultan had assumed the throne, all his brothers were executed as well as all their sons - had Selim I lost his bid for the crown, Süleyman would have been killed. These executions guaranteed that there would be no future wars or struggles between claimants to the throne since all the contenders but one were out of the picture.

In the seventeenth century, Ottoman Sultans began to revise this practice and simply imprisoned their brothers - this is what permitted Ahmed I to be succeeded by his brother. Western historians point to this practice as one of the central reasons why the Sultanic government failed. Since the crown was falling to individuals that had been imprisoned much if not most of their lives, the Ottoman state saw a succession of mad Sultans and the corresponding increase in power of a corrupt bureaucracy.

The fundamental qualification for the Sultanate was the individual's worthiness to fill the position. The Ottomans believed that simple succession proved that the Sultan was worthy of the crown; however, the Sultan may grow old, feeble, or corrupt and thus lose his worthiness to serve as Sultan. Selim I came to the throne by deposing his old father, Bayezid II (1481-1512), who was too old to lead the army against external threats. When Süleyman had become an old man, his two sons, Bayezid and Mustafa, his favorite son, plotted to overthrow him. Faced with this treason, the old Süleyman had to execute them both and this seems to have broken his spirit completely.

The Ottomans followed the old Turkish and Mongol tradition of considering the Sultan's lands to be a joint possession of the Sultan's family. Accordingly, the Ottoman lands were parceled out to members of the royal family when each Sultan came to power. Conquered lands were considered the private property of the Sultan.

Although the Sultan was regarded as personally responsible for every government decision, in reality the government was run by a large bureaucracy. This bureaucracy was controlled by a rigid and complex set of rules, and the Sultan himself was constrained by these rules. At the top of the bureaucracy was the Divan (couch), which served as a cabinet to the Sultan for making decisions. The most powerful member of the Sultan's government was the Grand Vizier (like a prime minister of our days) who largely oversaw all the executive functions of the government. Appointments to these positions were not arbitrary but followed strict rules.

The Ottoman state and government

The Ottoman state and government

The Ottomans inherited a rich mixture of political traditions from vastly disparate ethnic groups: Turks, Persians, Mongols, Mesopotamian and, of course, Islam. The Ottoman state, like the Turkish, Mongol, and Mesopotamian states rested on a principle of absolute authority in the monarch. The nature of Ottoman autocracy, however, is greatly misunderstood and misinterpreted in the West, particularly in world history textbooks.

The central function of the ruler or Sultan in Ottoman political theory was to guarantee justice (Adalet in Turkish) in the land. All authority hinges on the ruler's personal commitment to justice. This idea has both Turco - Persian and Islamic aspects. In Islamic political theory, the model of the just ruler was Solomon in the Hebrew histories (Süleyman is named after Solomon). The justice represented by the Solomonic ruler is a distributive justice; this is a justice of fairness and equity that comes closer to the Western notion of justice. In addition, however, adalet (justice) has Turco - Persian coordinates; in this tradition, adalet, or justice, is the protection of the helpless from the rapacity of corrupt and predatory government. In this sense, justice involves protecting the lowest members of society, the peasantry, from unfair taxation, corrupt magistracy, and inequitable courts. This, in Ottoman political theory, was the primary task of the Sultan. He personally protected his people from the excesses of government, such as predatory taxation and the corruption of local officials. For the Ottomans, the ruler could only guarantee this justice if he had absolute power. For if he was not an absolute ruler, that meant that he would be dependent on others and so subject to corruption. Absolute authority, then, was at the service of building a just government and laws rather than elevating the ruler above the law as Europeans have interpreted the Sultanate.

In order to ensure adalet , the Ottomans set up a number of practices and institutions in the central government surrounding the Sultan. The first was the establishment of a bureaucracy drawn from the Sultan's inner circle. This bureaucracy in turn controlled local governments; this would become the model of European absolutism in the seventeenth century. Other institutions and political practices were:

Observance of government : The Sultan's job was primarily to keep a watch on all the officials. In some cases, this observance of government involved the personal involvement of the Sultan. He would sometimes observe in secret the proceedings of the Divan, which was the central advisory group to the Sultan, and sometimes observe proceedings of ulama courts. For instance, at about the same time that Martin Luther was condemned to death by the Diet of Worms, Sultan Süleyman secretly observed the trial of Molla Kabiz who asserted the spiritual superiority of Jesus Christ over Muhammad. After questioning by the ulama court and refusing to recant, Molla was sentenced to death. Süleyman, however, overturned the verdict because the arguments the courts made had not disproved Molla's arguments (eventually, Molla's arguments were overcome in a later trial).

Periodically, the Sultan was required to tour local governments in disguise to ensure that magistrates and justices were operating justly. If the Sultan believed that an injustice was being committed against the people, he would interfere directly and overturn the decision. Islamic historians argue that the Ottoman Empire decline primarily because later Sultans took less and less interest in maintaining justice in their Empire. For the most part, however, the Sultan monitored local officials through a vast, complex, and elaborate system of spies who would report back to the central bureaucracy. The intelligence gathering system in the Ottoman Empire was the best in the world until the twentieth century!

Siyaset (Politics): Rooting out corruption meant nothing if nothing was done about it. Public agents and officials that abused their power and the peasantry were subjected to a special jurisdiction called the siyaset. The siyaset were a set of severe punishments imposed by the Sultan on corrupt officials; there was no way out, no cash compensation could take the place of the corporeal or, more often, capital punishments swiftly and severely meted out to corrupt officials. In the siyaset system, the most severe crimes involved illegal taxation or forced labor of the peasantry, staying in their homes without permission or billeting troops without permission, and requiring peasants against their will to provide food for them or for soldiers. Such crimes almost certainly meant the death penalty.

Public declaration of laws and taxes : In order to prevent fraudulent taxes and arbitrary laws by public officials, the Sultanic "orders" (ferman) and taxes were declared and posted in public. There was, then, always direct dissemination of central government to the people directly.

Accessibility : Perhaps the most important aspect of Ottoman centralized government was universal access to centralized authority. The highest reaches of power - with the exception of the person of the Sultan - was available to each and every citizen of the Empire. Every single member of Ottoman society could approach the Imperial Council with grievances against government officials; these official petitions were called "ard-i mahdar" and were always treated with the utmost seriousness. If the Imperial Council ruled against the officials, they would often be subjected to the siyaset .

Public opinion : The most common misconception about Islamic rulers in general and Ottoman rulers in particular was that they were removed, aloof, and uninterested in their people. While this may be physically true, it was not ideologically true. In fact, in the Ottoman state, public opinion was regarded as the only true foundation on which state authority rested. If the people ceased to support their rulers, it was argued, then the rulers would soon fall from power. The Sultanic government, then, assiduously cultivated public opinion, for it was recognized that the enemies of the Sultan were also cultivating adverse public opinion. The government did this not only through propaganda, but through policy as well. In addition to prosecuting corrupt government officials and publicly declaring taxes and laws, the Ottoman government also cultivated public opinion in its wars of conquests.

Soldiers were not allowed to mistreat peasants nor take anything from them without their permission or reimbursement. All the Ottoman wars of the conquest in the sixteenth century were assiduously planned years in advance. The government would lay up stores of supplies all along the campaign route so that the armies could feed themselves without taking anything from the general population. The Ottoman conquerors believed that no conquest could stand without the goodwill of the general population of the conquered, so military campaigns were remarkably fair and easy on the average person.

The Ottomans also paid attention to an early form of public opinion polling and were probably the first government to actively monitor public opinion through quantifiable means. The "opinion poll" that they used was the Friday prayers. In most Islamic states, one of the aspects of Friday prayer is to pray for the welfare and life of the ruler. This is an optional part of the Friday prayer, so its inclusion generally means that the members of the mosque think well of the ruler. Its omission frequently means the opposite. The Ottomans paid very strict attention to Friday prayers throughout the Empire in order to precisely gauge public sentiments.

sultans

Osman Gazi	(1299-1324/26)
Orhan Gazi	(1324/26-60)
Murat I	(1360-89)
Yildirim Bayazid I	(1389-1403)
Mehmet I	(1403-21)
Murat II	(1421-44 and 1446-51)
Fatih Mehmet II	(1444-46 and 1451-81)
Beyazid II	(1481-1512)
Yavuz Selim I	(1512-20)
Suleyman I	(1520-66)
Selim II	(1566-74)
Murad III	(1574-95)
Mehmet III	(1595-1603)
Ahmed I	(1603-17)
Mustafa I	(1617-18 and 1622-23)
Genc Osman II	(1618-22)
Murad IV	(1623-40)
Ibrahim	(1640-48)
Avci Mehmed IV	(1648-87)
Suleyman II	(1687-91)
Ahmed II	(1691-95)
Avci Mehmed V	(1648-87)
Suleyman III	(1687-91)
Ahmed II	(1691-95)
Mustafa II	(1695-1703)
Ahmed III	(1703-30)
Mahmud I	(1730-54)
Osman III	(1754-57)
Mustafa III	(1757-74)
Abdulhamid I	(1774-89)
Selim III	(1789-1807)
Mustafa IV	(1807-08)
Mahmud II	(1808-39)
Abdulmecit	(1839-61)
Abdulaziz	(1861-76)
Murad V	(1876)
Abdulhamid II	(1876-1909)
Mehmed V	(1909-18)
Vahdettin VI	(1918-22)

Osman (1259-1326)

The founder of the Ottoman Empire, Osman succeeded his father to a small territory granted by the Seljuk Turks. He followed the gazi tradition, expanding and enriching his empire. For more info on sultan Osman Gazi please Click Here.

Murad I or Murat I (1319-1389)

Succeeded his father as ruler of the Ottoman Empire in 1359, Murad I captured Thrace in 1363 and by 1369, he had conquered Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Serbia. He died at the battle of Kosovo in 1389 when a Serbian noble gained access to his tent and stabbed him. Murad I reorganized the janissaries into a standing paid army in the service of the sultan. He was succeeded by his son, Yildirim Bayezid.

Murad II or Murat II (c.1403-1451)

Succeeded his father, Mehmet I, in 1421. Murad II continued the expansionist policy of the Ottomans, capturing Salonika and embarking on a series of campaigns against Hungary. He was frustrated by the military strategy of the Hungarian leader, Janos Hunyadi. He signed the Treaty of Szeged in 1444 with a Balkan coalition under the leadership of the Polish king, Wladislaw III. He crushed a Christian army at Varna later in the same year, defeating the combined forces of Hungary, Serbia, and Bosnia at Kosovo in 1448, reacquiring control of Serbia, which he had earlier relinquished in the Treaty of Szeged.

Origins of the Ottoman Empire

Origins of the Ottoman Empire

Pressured out of their homes in the Asian steppes by the Mongols, the Turkish nomadic tribes converted to Islam during the eighth and ninth centuries. By the tenth century, one of the Turkish tribes, the Seljuk, had become a significant power in the Islamic world and had adopted a settled life that included Islamic orthodoxy, a central administration, and taxation. However, many other Turkish groups remained nomadic and, pursuing the gazi tradition, sought to conquer land for Islam and to acquire war booty for themselves. This led them into conflict with the Seljuk Turks, and to pacify the nomadic tribes, the Seljuks directed them to the eastern domain of the Byzantine Empire, Anatolia. The tribe known as the Ottomans arose from one of the smaller emirates established in northwestern Anatolia after 1071. The dynasty was named for Osman (1259-1326), who began to expand his kingdom into the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor, moving his capital to Bursa in 1326.

Ottoman Empire

The political and geographical entity governed by the Muslim Ottoman Turks. Their empire was centered in present-day Turkey, and extended its influence into southeastern Europe as well as the Middle East. Europe was only temporarily able to resist their advance: the turning point came at the Battle of Varna in 1444 when a European coalition army failed to stop the Turkish advance. Only Constantinople (Istanbul) remained in Byzantine hands and its conquest in 1453 seemed inevitable after Varna. The Turks subsequently established an empire in Anatolia and southeastern Europe which lasted until the early twentieth century.

Although the Ottoman Empire is not considered a European kingdom per se, Ottoman expansion had a profound impact on a continent already stunned by the calamities of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and the Ottoman Turks must, therefore, be considered in any study of Europe in the late Middle Ages. The ease with which the Ottoman Empire achieved military victories led Western Europeans to fear that ongoing Ottoman success would collapse the political and social infrastructure of the West and bring about the downfall of Christendom. Such a momentous threat could not be ignored and the Europeans mounted crusades against the Ottomans in 1366, 1396, and 1444, but to no avail. The Ottomans continued to conquer new territories.

One of a number of Turkish tribes that migrated from the central Asian steppe, the Ottomans were initially a nomadic people who followed a primitive shamanistic religion. Contact with various settled peoples led to the introduction of Islam and under Islamic influence, the Turks acquired their greatest fighting tradition, that of the gazi warrior. Well trained and highly skilled, gazi warriors fought to conquer the infidel, acquiring land and riches in the process.

While the gazi warriors fought for Islam, the greatest military asset of the Ottoman Empire was the standing paid army of Christian soldiers, the Janissaries. Originally created in 1330 by Orhan, the janissaries were Christian captives from conquered territories. Educated in the Islamic faith and trained as soldiers, the janissaries were forced to provide annual tribute in the form of military service. To counter the challenges of the gazi nobility, Murad I (1319-1389) transformed the new military force into the elite personal army of the Sultan. They were rewarded for their loyalty with grants of newly acquired land and janissaries quickly rose to fill the most important administrative offices of the Ottoman Empire.

During the early history of the Ottoman Empire, political factions within Byzantium employed the Ottoman Turks and the janissaries as mercenaries in their own struggles for imperial supremacy. In the 1340's, a usurper's request for Ottoman assistance in a revolt against the emperor provided the excuse for an Ottoman invasion of Thrace on the northern frontier of the Byzantine Empire. The conquest of Thrace gave the Ottomans a foothold in Europe from which future campaigns into the Balkans and Greece were launched and Adrianople (Edirne) became the Ottoman capital in 1366. Over the next century, the Ottomans developed an empire that took in Anatolia and increasingly larger sections of Byzantine territories in Eastern Europe and Asia Minor.

Ottoman expansion into Europe was well underway in the late 14th century. Gallipoli was conquered in 1354 and a vast crusading army was crushed at the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. The disaster was so great that the knights of Western Europe were discouraged of launching a new expedition against the Turks. The appearance of the Tatars under Tamerlane early in the fifteenth century temporarily delayed Turkish advances but the Ottomans soon resumed attacks on Byzantium and Eastern Europe. A Hungarian - Polish army was decimated at Varna in 1444 by Murad II and Ottoman conquests were virtually unchecked during the reign of his son, Mehmed II the Conqueror (1432-1481).

Constantinople itself was captured in 1453, sending a shock wave across Europe, and its name was changed to Istanbul. With the fall of Byzantium, a wave of Byzantine refugees fled to the Latin West, carrying with them the classical and Hellenistic knowledge that provided additional impetus to the burgeoning humanism of the Renaissance.

Athens fell in 1456 and Belgrade narrowly escaped capture when a peasant army led by the Hungarian Janos Hunyadi held off a siege in the same year, nevertheless, Serbia, Bosnia, Wallachia, and the Khanate of Crimea were all under Ottoman control by 1478. The Turks commanded the Black Sea and the northern Aegean and many prime trade routes had been closed to European shipping. The Islamic threat loomed even larger when an Ottoman beachhead was established at Otranto in Italy in 1480.

Although the Turkish presence in Italy was short-lived, it appeared as if Rome itself must soon fall into Islamic hands. In 1529, the Ottomans had moved up the Danube and besieged Vienna. The siege was unsuccessful and the Turks began to retreat. Although the Ottomans continued to instill fear well into the 16th century, internal struggles began to deteriorate the once overwhelming military supremacy of the Ottoman Empire. The outcome of battles was no longer a foregone conclusion and Europeans began to score victories against the Turks.

Despite military success of their territorial expansion, there remained problems of organization and government within the Ottoman Empire. Murad II attempted to limit the influence of the nobility and the gazi by elevating faithful former slaves and janissaries to administrative positions. These administrators came to provide an alternative voice to that of the nobility and, as a result, Murad II and successive Sultans were able to play one faction against the other, a feature that came to typify the Ottoman Empire. The power of the janissaries often overrode a weak sultan and the elite military force occasionally acted as "king-makers".

Another weakness was that primogeniture was not used in Islam and the transference of power from a deceased sultan to his son was frequently disputed. If a sultan died without a male heir or if he left several sons, succession was violently contested. In the early period, to prevent ongoing rivalries, all male relatives of a newly crowned sultan were put to death. Later, however, the potential rivals were merely imprisoned for life. Some historians consider that this policy of imprisonment contributed to the decline of the Ottoman Empire as mentally unstable and politically inexperienced sultans were rescued from prison and placed upon the throne. Nevertheless, despite frequent disputes over succession, the Ottoman Empire managed to produce effective leaders in the late Middle Ages and a comprehensive government policy developed.

Despite the difficulties of succession and administrative control, the Ottomans had a number of advantages that contributed to their success, the enormous wealth of the Empire being the most significant asset. As the Ottoman Empire expanded, it acquired control of the trade routes to the East and many European powers, such as Venice and Genoa, paid great sums for the privilege of access to these routes.

Although the atrocities of the "Infidel Turk" struck fear into the hearts of all Christians in the late Middle Ages, in actuality, the Ottomans generally allowed religious groups to continue to practice their own faiths within the conquered territories. They also tended to preserve the established feudal institutions and, in many cases, permitted the co-existence of law codes to regulate the different ethnic and religious groups. Their administrative and governmental systems were well developed and highly effective and most lands under Ottoman control were well managed during this time.

The Medieval madrasa

The Medieval madrasa

In the Middle Ages the madrasa (literaly, "place to study", in Arabic darasa "to study"; for discussion of darasa as a technical term meaning "to study jurisprudence" and darrasa meaning "to teach jurisprudence") was a college for the professional study of the Islamic sciences, particularly jurisprudence (feqh) but also the Koran, Hadith (Hadis), and such ancillary fields as Arabic grammar and philology, knowledge of which helped in understanding sacred and legal texts. The so-called "foreign sciences," like philosophy and medicine, which also formed part of a learned education, were most often studied in the teachers' homes, as was literature when conceived as a field apart from the Islamic sciences. Those schools were very common in the Ottoman Empire as well.

The first stage of Islamic religious education was memorization of the Koran. Information on this stage is scanty. Many Islamic scholars boasted of having learned the Koran by the age of eight or nine years, though presumably most students took somewhat longer. Boys in elementary school were also taught reading, writing, and arithmetic. Next came the memorization of Hadith (Hadis). In biographical notices the age at which a scholar began to "hear" Hadith is often mentioned; as young as six years of age was not uncommon. A traditionist might receive payment for teaching the Hadith he knew, and there was greater demand for traditionists who had heard from authorities that few others could cite. There was thus an incentive for starting to collect Hadith very early (Bulliet, 1983). Other scholars are said, however, to have begun collecting Hadith in their teens and twenties; there are occasional reports of traditionists who would not relate Hadith collected at an early age, for fear of making mistakes. As serious collecting of Hadith entailed travel to other cities, it can be surmised that it normally occupied the teen and later years. Until the 10th century, in Hanbalite schools, the collection of Hadith and the study of jurisprudence could scarcely be separated; both meant sitting before various masters and memorizing whatever they had to teach, whether the words and deeds of the Prophet and early Muslims (Hadith) or the legal opinions of later teachers (jurisprudence).

Travel in pursuit of Hadith was crucial to the development of the madrasa as a separate institution, in as much as it stimulated the foundation of residences specifically for students. In the first Islamic centuries the Islamic sciences were always studied in mosques or private houses. Itinerant students needed places to stay. Often they slept in the very mosques where they heard lectures in the daytime. An ascetic might make the mosque his home for thirty years or more. Yet more private quarters were usually preferred, especially for students who remained in one place for long.

During the 10th century the number of long-term students increased, especially as jurisprudence developed into a field of study distinct from Hadith. The prerogative of issuing juridical opinions came to depend less on having collected the opinions of various judges and legal scholars as transmitted by teachers than on having studied under a particular master and received a license from him. Students of jurisprudence were therefore less given to continual travel than students of Hadith.

In the early centuries long-term students who did not sleep in the mosque usually stayed in the merchants' houses. Often the students themselves were long-distance traders; in biographical dictionaries religious scholars are more often associated with the occupation "trader" than with any other, and there are many stories of traveling students who supported themselves by selling goods they had brought with them.

Religious scholars were recipients of alms in early Islam, so it is not surprising that eventually houses were endowed specifically for them, usually next to mosques, and that sometimes teaching took place in them.

The first notices of buildings called madrasas (medrese) also appeared in the 10th century. The earliest examples appear to have been founded by the men who taught in them. From the later 11th century madrasas normally included living quarters for students, as in the old mosque complexes. Customarily each was devoted to the study of jurisprudence according to one school.

In some early references the terms for mosque and madrasa appear to have been used interchangeably, as teaching took place in both. Perhaps the distinction is clearest from the point of view of the founder. The mosque was among the earliest institutions of Islam and unalterably public in character, originally the site of government and justice, as well as of prayer and religious learning. Once a patron had endowed a mosque as a pious foundation (waqf - vakif), it passed out of his effective control; for example, though it might have been established for a particular teacher of jurisprudence, it was not in the patron's power to appoint a successor to that teacher. By contrast, the patron who founded a madrasa might retain, for himself and his heirs, the right to appoint or even dismiss the faculty and staff. The importance to potential founders of such continuing control is illustrated negatively by the rarity of madrasas in lands where Malikite law prevailed, for Malikite law is peculiar in denying such control.

Pious foundations were better protected against confiscation and against division among heirs, who nevertheless might benefit from them, for example, as administrators. Teachers of the religious sciences often had important popular followings, so that patronage might also help secure the loyalty of these segments of the population. Max Weber suggested that ethnically alien regimes and especially personal rulers will always favor men of religion, in order to tame the subject populations. Perhaps this suggestion helps to explain the growth of madrasas in the period when Turks ruled over most Arabic- and Persian - speaking Muslims. Some patrons sponsored particular schools, others sought to maintain a balance.

From the point of view of the teachers and students, however, there was no difference in curriculum or procedure between mosque and madrasa. Students preferred the madrasa if they received lodgings and small stipends; teachers often gained renown from association with particular madrasas.

Students at each madrasa would gather about their teacher in a circle (h·alqa - halka). One's position in the circle was an indicator of prestige, and there are stories of how a new student who impressed his teacher with some display of brilliance might be asked to move closer within the group. The class would begin with recitations from the Koran and prophetic Hadith (Hadis), then proceed to the business at hand. Teachers of jurisprudence usually took about twenty students at a time, but audiences for simple dictation, especially of Hadith, might reach tens of thousands at the chief mosques.

The basic task of the practicing jurisconsult was to answer questions from laymen and, if he was a judge, to decide cases. He would derive his answers by combining relevant texts from the Koran and Hadith according to the principles of his legal school. The student had thus to memorize prodigious amounts of material, both Hadith and the opinions of previous jurists. The outstanding method of training students to use the material they had memorized was disputation, in which two scholars would argue different sides of a question, each seeking to reduce the other to silence or, failing that, to persuade the audience that he had overcome his opponent.

After about four years the master would examine a student and, if he found him qualified, give him a license to answer juridical questions. If a student wished not only to answer questions but also to teach jurisprudence, he became a fellow of the master for an indeterminate period. A fellow might assist as repetitor or tutor. He might also produce a compilation of lecture notes, often a commentary on some authoritative handbook. This work was virtually a doctoral dissertation. At last the master would license the qualified fellow to teach, perhaps when a position had opened up for him.

In contrast to the professional jurist, a scholar was also expected to know a great deal about literature, philosophy, and other subjects. Although he might learn a little of these subjects in mosque and madrasa, such studies were mostly followed elsewhere. One reason was that the mosque and the madrasa, as Islamic religious institutions, had no place for the "foreign sciences." A comprehensive literary education went well beyond what was necessary to understand the Koran and Hadith (Hadis). In addition, it was neither practical nor desirable to require formal training and certification in literature and other subjects comparable to the training and certification of jurists; individuals learned through private reading, rather than by hearing lectures and undergoing examinations by certified masters.

It must be stressed, however, that the study of jurisprudence in the madrasa, as well as studies outside, was informal and individual. Licenses to issue juridical opinions or to teach jurisprudence were always given by individual masters, not institutions or faculties. In biographical notices it is usually reported that someone learned jurisprudence from a particular master but never that he learned it at a particular madrasa. Moreover, there was never a uniform licensing procedure, even in specialized institutions like the madrasa. Madrasas were also never state institutions; politicians might endow them but from their personal fortunes and as Muslims individually promoting learning. Bureaucracies were staffed by scholars, and a knowledge of jurisprudence was part of a scholar's education; it is anachronistic, however, to think of patrons as deliberately founding madrasas to train state functionaries.

There are many Seljuk and Ottoman Medresses throughout Turkey. They show best examples of the Turkish architecture and mostly are in good conditions, some of them are used as museums. These medresses can be seen in many Anatolian cities such as Konya, Erzurum, Sivas, Bursa etc. and in other religious sites.

Prime Ministers of the Turkish Republic

Prime Ministers of the Turkish Republic

1- Ismet Inonu (1st) (Biography)
Oct 1923 - March 1924

2 - Ismet Inonu (2nd)
March 1924 - Nov 1924

3 - Ali Fethi Okyar
Nov 1924 - March 1925

4 - Ismet Inonu (3rd)
March 1925 - Nov 1927

5 - Ismet Inonu (4th)
Nov 1927 - Sep 1930

6 - Ismet Inonu (5th)
Sep 1930 - May 1931

7 - Ismet Inonu (6th)
May 1931 - March 1935

8 - Ismet Inonu (7th)
March 1935 - Nov 1937

9 - Celal Bayar (1st)
Nov 1937 - Nov 1938

10 - Celal Bayar (2nd)
Nov 1938 - Jan 1939

11 - Dr. Refik Saydam (1st)
Jan 1939 - April 1939

12 - Dr. Refik Saydam (2nd)
April 193 - July 1942

13 - Sukru Saracoglu (1st)
July 1942 - March 1943

14 - Sukru Saracoglu (2nd)
March 1943 - Aug 1946

The Multiparty Era

15 - Recep Peker
Aug 1946 - Sep 1947

16 - Hasan Saka (1st)
Sep 1947 - June 1948

17 - Hasan Saka (2nd)
June 1948 - Jan 1949

18 - Semsettin Gunaltay
Jan 1949 - May 1950

19 - Adnan Menderes (1st) (Biography)
May 1950 - March 1951

20 - Adnan Menderes (2nd)
March 1951 - May 1954

21 - Adnan Menderes (3rd)
May 1954 - Dec 1955

22 - Adnan Menderes (4th)
Dec 1955 - Nov 1957

23 - Adnan Menderes (5th)
Nov 1957 - May 1960

24 - Cemal Gursel (1st) (Biography)
May 1960 - Jan 1961

25 - Cemal Gursel (2nd)
Jan 1961 - Nov 1961

26 - Ismet Inonu (8th) (Biography)
Nov 1961 - June 1962

27 - Ismet Inonu (9th)
June 1962 - Dec 1963

28 - Ismet Inonu (10th)
Dec 1963 - Feb 1965

29 - S. Hayri Urguplu
Feb 1965 - Oct 1965

30 - Suleyman Demirel (1st) (Biography)
Oct 1965 - Nov 1969

31 - Suleyman Demirel (2nd)
Nov 1969 - March 1970

32 - Süleyman Demirel (3rd)
March 1970 - March 1971

33 - Nihat Erim (1st)
March 1971 - Dec 1971

34 - Nihat Erim (2nd)
Dec 1971 - May 1972

35 - Ferit Melen
May 1972 - April 1973

36 - Naim Talu
April 1973 - Jan 1974

37 - Bulent Ecevit (1st) (Biography)
Jan 1974 - Nov 1974

38 - Sadi Irmak
Nov 1974 - March 1975

39 - Suleyman Demirel (4th) (Biography)
March 1975 - June 1977

40 - Bulent Ecevit (2nd)
June 1977 - Jan 1978

41 - Suleyman Demirel (5th)
July 1977 - Jan 1978

42 - Bulent Ecevit (3rd)
Jan 1978 - Nov 1979

43 - Suleyman Demirel (6th)
Nov 1979 - Sep 1980

44 - Bulent Ulusu
Sep 1980 - Dec 1983

45 - Turgut Ozal (1st) (Biography)
Dec 1983 - Dec 1987

46 - Turgut Ozal (2nd)
Dec 1987 - Nov 1989

47 - Yildirim Akbulut
Nov 1989 - June 1991

48 - Mesut Yilmaz (1st) (Biography)
June 1991 - Nov 1991

49 - Suleyman Demirel (7th)
Nov 1991 - May 1993

50 - Tansu Ciller (Biography)
July 1993 - October 1995

51 - Tansu Ciller
October 1995 - November 1995

52 - Tansu Ciller
November 1995 - March 1996

53 - Mesut Yilmaz (2nd) (Biography)
March 1996 - June 1996

54 - Necmettin Erbakan (Biography)
June 1996 - June 1997

55 - Mesut Yilmaz (3rd)
June 1997 - January 1999

56 - Bulent Ecevit (4th) (Biography)
11 January 1999 - 28 May 1999

57 - Bulent Ecevit (5th)
28 May 1999 - 18 November 2002

58 - Abdullah Gul (Biography)
18 November 2002 - 14 March 2003

59 - Recep Tayyip Erdogan (1st) (Biography)
14 March 2003 - 22 July 2007

60 - Recep Tayyip Erdogan (2nd)
22 July 2007 - Today

The Florence Nightingale Museum

In the October of 1854 when war was declared against Russia Miss Nightingale with 38 nurses traveled to Istanbul to organize a nursing unit to care for the wounded from the Crimean battle front.

On arrival she found 2,300 wounded already installed in the Selimiye Military Barracks at Uskudar (Scudari). Within weeks the numbers rose to 10,000 wounded Turkish, French and British soldiers. She saw the over crowding of the wards, corridor and even the towers. She believed that the bad sanitary arrangements (common to all hospitals at that time) plus the overcrowding were responsive for the frightening mortality rate.

During her two years at Uskudar she organized a new type of war hospital, laying the foundations of modern nursing case.

To this day she is known as "The lady of the lamp", this phrase was coined by the wounded men who looked forward to her nightly visits as she made her way through the maze of corridors and wards, lighting her way with a candle lamp.

At the end of the Crimean War, the Barracks reverted to the purpose it was built for. An impressive building built in 1800 can easily be seen from the European shore, situated at the entrance of the Bosphorus on the Anatolian side.

The Florence Nightingale Museum

The museum is opened in memory of the English nurse Florence Nightingale who came to Istanbul in 1854 to tend the Turkish and allied soldiers of the Crimean War. The hospital was at the Selimiye Army Barracks and now the room in the northwest tower has been turned into a museum.

The exhibits include Florence Nightingale's personal belongings, photographs, certificates, medallions and the bracelet that sultan Abdulmecid presented to her.

Florence Nightingale Müzesi
Selimiye Kislasi, Usküdar
(216) 343 73 10
Open daily between 09:00-16:00, except at weekends
Can be visited with special permission only

Janissaries

nissaries (in Turkish Yeni is new and Çeri means soldier), standing Ottoman Turkish army were organized by Murat I. Ottoman armies had previously been composed of Turcoman tribal levies, who were loyal to their clan leaders, but as the Ottoman Empire acquired the characteristics of a state, it became necessary to have paid troops loyal only to the sultan. Therefore, the system of impressing Christian kids taken during invasions of countries (devsirme) was instituted and having been converted to Islam and given the finest training, they became the elite forces of the army.

Special laws regulated their daily life cutting them off from civil society such as being forbidden to marry. Devotion to such discipline made the Janissaries the scourge of Europe. These standards, however, changed with time; recruitment became lax (Moslems were admitted, too) and because of the privileges Janissaries started to enjoy their life, their numbers increased from about 20,000 in 1574 to some 135,000 in 1826. To supplement their salaries, the Janissaries began to pursue various trades and established strong links with civil society, thus undermining their loyalty to the ruler. In time they became kingmakers and the allies of conservative forces, opposing all reforms and refusing to allow the army to be modernized. When they revolted in 1826, Sultan Mahmut II abolished the corps, putting all opposition down by force. Thousands were killed in the Hippodrome and others banished, but most were simply absorbed into the general population.

Apart from the Janissaries, in 1389 Ottoman Army introduced a system of conscription; when needed, every town and village should provide a fully equipped conscript at the recruiting office created by the order of the sultan. This new force of irregular infantrymen was called "Azabs" and they were used in many ways; to build roads and bridges for the army, to support the supplies to the front-line, and sometimes they were even used as cannon fodder to slow down enemy advance. Basibozuk was a branch of the Azabs and were especially recruited from homeless and criminals. They were fiercefull and undisciplined, specialized in close combat.

Other divisions of the Ottoman Army were:

• Sipahi: an Ottoman cavalryman
• Akaga: White eunuch of the sultan's palace to guard the core area
• Akincilar: a mounted corps of the Ottoman Army used as an advance guard and for raiding
• Mehter Band: used to play military marches during military campaigns and was usually associated with the janissary corps

For more details on this topic, see Multi-Party Period of Republic of Turkey.

The real multi-party period begins with the election of the Democratic Party. The Menderes government was very popular at first, relaxing the restrictions on Islam and presiding over a booming economy. In the later half of the decade, however, the economy began to fail and the government introduced censorship laws limiting dissent. The government became plagued by high inflation and a massive debt. On May 27, 1960 General Cemal Gürsel led a military coup d'état removing President Celal Bayar and Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, the second of whom was executed. The system returned to civilian control in October of 1961. The political system that emerged in the wake of the 1960 coup was a fractured one, producing a series of unstable government coalitions in parliament alternating between the Justice Party of Süleyman Demirel on the right and the Republican People's Party of İsmet İnönü and Bülent Ecevit on the left. A new coup was staged in 1971, and in the 1970s under Prime Minister Ecevit in coalition with the religious National Salvation Party, Turkey carried out an invasion of Cyprus. The fractured political scene and poor economy led to mounting violence between ultranationalists and communists in the streets of Turkey's cities. A military coup d'état took place in 1980. Within two years, the military had returned the government to civilian hands. The political system came under one-party governance under Turgut Özal's Motherland Party, which combined a globally-oriented economic program with conservative social values. Under Özal, the economy boomed, converting towns like Gaziantep from small provincial capitals into mid-sized economic boomtowns.

With the turn of the 1990s, political instability returned. The 1995 elections brought a short-lived coalition between Yılmaz's Motherland Party and the True Path Party, now with Tansu Çiller at the helm. In 1997, the military, citing his government's support for religious policies deemed dangerous to Turkey's secular nature, sent a memorandum to Erbakan government requesting that he resign, which he did. This was named a postmodern coup. Shortly thereafter, the RP was banned and re-born under the name Virtue Party (FP). A new government was formed by ANAP and Ecevit's Democratic Left Party (DSP) supported from the outside by the center-left Republican People's Party (CHP), led by Deniz Baykal. The DSP won big in the 1999 elections. Second place went to the Nationalist Action Party (MHP). These two parties, alongside Yılmaz's ANAP formed a government. The government was somewhat effective, if not harmonious, bringing about much-needed economic reform, instituting human rights legislation, and bringing Turkey ever closer to the European Union. A series of economic shocks led to new elections in 2002, bringing into power the religiously conservative Justice and Development Party of former mayor of Istanbul, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.

ne of the great crossroads of ancient civilizations is a broad peninsula that lies between the Black and Mediterranean seas. Called Asia Minor (Lesser Asia) by the Romans, the land is the Asian part of modern Turkey, across Thrace. It lies across the Aegean Sea to the east of Greece and is usually known by its Greek name Anatolia.

Asia Minor juts westward from Asia to within half a mile (800 meters) of Europe at the divided city of Istanbul, where two suspension bridges over the strait of Bosphorus link the two continents. Asia Minor is also bordered by the Sea of Marmara on the northwest. The area of the peninsula is about 292,000 square miles (756,000 square kilometers).

The interior is a high arid plateau, about 3,000 feet (900 meters) in elevation, flanked to the north and south by rugged mountain ranges. Within the plateau a number of ranges enclose broad, flat valleys, where several salty lakes have formed.

A Mediterranean-type climate of hot, dry summers and mild, moist winters prevails in the coastal areas. The dry central plateau has hot summers and cold winters. During all seasons high winds are common; moist Mediterranean winds bring rain to the coastal regions in the winter. There is little summer rainfall.

In about 2000 BC Asia Minor was in the hands of the Hittites, who migrated from the area east of the Black Sea. Their civilization rivaled that of the Egyptians and Babylonians. In the 12th century BC their empire fell to the Assyrians. Small seaboard states grew up, only to fall to the Greeks, who colonized the entire coast in about the 8th century BC. According to legend, they first laid siege to the city-state of Troy during the Trojan War. In 560 BC Croesus mounted the throne of Lydia in Asia Minor and soon brought all the Greek colonies under his rule. Croesus was overthrown by Cyrus the Great of Persia. Two hundred years later Alexander the Great again spread Greek rule over the peninsula.

After its conquest by Rome in the 2nd century BC, Asia Minor enjoyed centuries of peace. During the Middle Ages, as a part of the Byzantine Empire, it became a center of Christianity and the guardian of Greek and Roman culture. One of the chief medieval trade routes passed through the region. As the power of the Empire declined, Arabs and Mongols invaded. In the 15th century the Ottoman Turks conquered the peninsula and made Istanbul (then known as Constantinople) the capital. The Ottoman Empire lasted until 1922. The next year Asia Minor became the larger part of the Turkish Republic under Kemal Atatürk. He had set up a government in Ankara, which became the new capital of Turkey.

Ninlil Ellil's wife. She was imported by way of the Hurrians. Lelwanis (Lilwani, Ereshkigal, sometimes assimilated with Ishtar), 'Sun of the Earth' Goddess of the earth and the nether-world, appeasement of her through sheep sacrifices helps remove threats from evil omens. Ereshkigal This goddess is the mother of the Storm-god. She plays a role in returning him from the underworld by opening the gates of the Dark Earth. Ayas (Ea) He is the keeper of the 'old tablets with the words of fate'. The Ullikummis myth has him as the father of the Storm-god. He attends Kumarbis and fetches that god's son to be devoured as a means of releaving Kumarbis pains from the Storm-god. He advises Kumarbis to have experts work 'poor' magic to aid him in his distress, bringing bulls and sacrifices of meal. This magic helps secure Kumarbis's 'tarnassus'. He is prevailed upon by the Storm-god following his defeat by Ullikummis. He and presumably the Storm-god present a case against Kumarbis' for his creation of Ullikummis before Ellil. Rebutting Ellil's defense that Kumarbis is well behaved regarding worship and sacrifices, Ea proclaims that Ullikummis 'will block off heaven and the gods holy houses.' He seeks out Upelluri, and after interviewing him, locates Ullukummis feet on Upelluri's shoulder. He charges the olden gods to deliver the copper knife with which they severed heaven from earth, in order to cut through Ullukummis' feet. He then spurs Tasmisus and the Storm-god on to fight the crippled giant. Tapkina (Hurrian) (Damkina) Ea's wife, imported from the Akkadians by way of the Hurrians. Shaushka (Hurrian) (Ishtar) She takes the form of a winged female standing on a lion. She spies her brothers, the Storm-god and Tasmisus, leaving the kuntarra following word of the appearance of Ullikummis. She leads them by hand, up Mount Hazzi, from which they can view the giant. When the Storm-god is vexed and fearful at the site of Kumarbis' son, she chides him. Later, she takes up her galgalturi/harp and sings to the blind and deaf Ullikummis, but her folly is exposed to her by a great wave from the sea, who charges her to seek out her brother who is yet to be emboldened to the inevitable battle. She was loved by the serpent Hedammu. Ninatta Shaushka's attendant. Kulitta Shaushka's attendant. Demons Various rituals were performed to call upon demons for protection or to drive away baneful deities summoned by sorcerers. Alauwaimis Properly propitiated with ritual, libation, and goat sacrifice, this demon drives away evil sickness. Tarpatassis Properly propitiated with ritual and the sacrifice of a buck, this demon staves off sickness and grants long, healthy life. Mortals Hupasiya He is a resident of Ziggaratta. He is recruited by Inaras to aid in defeating Illuyankas. He agrees to her plan after eliciting her promise to sleep with him. When Illuyankas and his children are gorged on Inaras's feast, he ties them up for the Storm-god to kill. he is set up in a house by Inaras with the instructions not to look out the window while she is away, lest he see his family. He does, and begs to go home. Here the text is broken and some researches assume that he is killed. Cosmology The olden gods built heaven and earth upon Upelluri. They had a copper knife which they used to cleave the heaven from the earth, after which they stored it in ancient storehouses and sealed them up - only to open them and retrieve it for use on Ullikummis. Kuntarra house The house of the gods in heaven. The Dark Earth, i.e. the Underworld. It has an entrance with gates. It holds bronze or iron palhi-vessels with lead lids. That which enters them, perishes within and doesn't return. Telipinu and Hannahanna's anger is banished there.

Ullikummi(s), the diorite man
He is born of Kumarbis and the Rock. This god is made entirely of diorite. He was born to be used as a weapon to defeat the Storm-godand his allies. Kumarbis had him delivered to the Irsirra deities to keep him hidden from the Storm-god, the Sun-god, and Ishtar. After the Irsirra deities presented him to Ellil, they placed him on the shoulder of Upelluri where he grows an acre in a month. After 15 days he grows enough so that he stands waist deep in the sea when the Sun-god and he notice each other. Alerted by the Sun-god, the Storm-god eventually prepares for battle atop Mount Imgarra, yet their first battle results in an incomplete victory. He drives Hebat from her temple, cutting off her communication with the other gods. Astabis leads seventy gods on attack against him, attempting to draw up the water from around him, perhaps in order to stop his growth. They fall into the sea and he grows to be 9000 leagues tall and around, shaking the heavens, the earth, pushing up the sky, and towering over Kummiya. Ea locates him and cuts off his feet with the copper knife that separated the heaven from the earth. Despite his wounds he boasts to the Storm-god that he will take the kingship of heaven. Presumably, he is none-the-less defeated.

Sun-god (of Heaven)
Probably an Akkadian import, this god is one of justice and is sometimes the king of all gods. An ally of the Storm-god, he notices the giant Ullikummis in the sea and visited the Storm-god, refusing to eat until he reports his news. After he has done so, the Storm-god proclaims that the food on the table shall become pleasant, which it does, and so the Sun-god enjoys his meal and returns to his route in heaven. When Telepinus disappears, bringing a famine, he arranges a feast, but it is ineffective in assuaging their hunger. At the Storm-god's complaint, he dispatches an eagle to search for the god, but the bird is unsuccessful. After the bee discovers Telepinus, he has man perform a ritual. In another version of the missing god myth, he is one of the missing gods. He keeps several sheep. At the end of the day, he travels through the nether-world. He was kidnapped by the Sea-god and released when Telipinu came for him. In a longer version of that story, the Sea-god caught him in a net, possibly putting him into a Kukubu-vessel when he fell. During his absence, Hahhimas (Frost) took hold.

Hapantallis
He is the Sun-god's shepherd.

Moon-god (Hurrian Kashku)
He fell upon the 'killamar', the gate complex, from heaven and disappeared. Storm-god/Taru rain-stormed after him, frightening him. Hapantali went to him and uttered the words of a spell over him. While known to bestow ill omens, he can be appeased by sheep sacrifice.

The Sea, the Waters
She is told by Imbaluris that 'Kumarbis must remain father of the gods'. Struck with fear by this message, she makes ready here abode and prepares to act as hostess for a feast for Kumarbis. This feast may have served as a meeting of Mother-goddesses who delivered Kumarbis' child by the Rock, Ullikummis.

The Sea-god
He quarreled and kidnapped the Sun-god of Heaven. When Telipinu came to recover the Sun-god, the Sea-god was so intimidated that he also gave him his daughter. he later demanded a bride-price for her of the Storm-god, and was eventually given a thousand cattle and a thousand sheep. In another version, he caught the Sun-god in a net as he fell, and may have sealed him in a Kukubu-vessel, allowing Hahhimas (Frost to take hold of most of the other gods. He questions the fire in its role in one of Kamrusepa's healing spells.

Inaras
Daughter of the Storm-god and goddess of the wild animals of the steppe. After the Storm-god's initial defeat by Illuyankas, she follows his request to set up a feast. She recruits Hupasiayas of Zigaratta, to aid in revenge on Illuyankas, by taking him as a lover. She then sets about luring Illuyankas and his children to a feast. After the dragon and his children gorge themselves on her meal, Hupasiayas binds him with a rope. Then the Storm-god sets upon them and defeats them. She then gives Hupasiayas a house on a cliff to live in, yet warns him not to look out the window, lest he see his wife and children. He disobeys her, and seeing his family begs to be allowed to go home. Gurney speculates that he was killed for his disobedience. She consults with Hannahanna, who promises to give her land and a man. She then goes missing and is sought after by her father and Hannahanna with her bee.

Illuyankas - the Dragon.
He defeated the Storm-god in Kiskilussa. Later he was lured from his lair with his children by a well dressed Inaras with a feast. After they were too engorged to get into their lair again, the Storm-god, accompanied by the other gods, killed him. In another version of the myth, he defeated the Storm-god and stole his eyes and heart. Later, his daughter married the son of the Storm-god. Acting on the Storm-god's instruction, his son asked for the eyes and heart. When these were returned to him, the Storm-god vanquished Illuyankas, but slew his son as well when the youth sided with the dragon. The ritual of his defeat was invoked every spring to symbolize the earth's rebirth.

Hedammu
He is a serpent who loved Ishtar.

Irsirra deities
These gods who live in the dark earth are charged by Kumarbis through Imbaluris to hide Ullikummis from the sky gods, the Sun-god, the Storm-god, and Ishtar. They are also charged with placing the child on the shoulder of Upelluri. Later they accept the child and deliver it to Ellil, before placing it on Upelluri's right shoulder.

Hapantalliyas/Hapantalli
He took his place at the Moon-god's side when he fell from heaven on the gate complex and uttered a spell.

Kamrusepa(s) (Katahziwuri)
She is the goddess of magic and healing. She witnessed and announced the Moon-god's fall from heaven on to the gate complex. She is the goddess of magic and healing. After Telepinus has been found, yet remains angry, she is set to cure him of his temper. She performs an elaborate magical ritual, removing his evil and malice. In another tablet, she performs the spell of fire, which removes various illnesses, changing them to a mist which ascends to heaven, lifted by the Dark Earth. The Sea-god questions the fire on its role.

Astabis (Zamama, Akkadian Ninurta)
He is a Hurrian warrior god. After the Storm-god's first attack on Ullikummis is unsuccessful, he leads seventy gods in battle wagons on an attack on the diorite giant. They try to draw the water away from him, perhaps in order to stop his growth, but they fall from the sky and Ullikummis grows even larger, towering over the gate of Kummiya.

Uliliyassis
He is a minor god who, properly attended to, removes impotence.

Kurunta
This god's symbol is the stag. He is associated with rural areas.

Kubaba
She is the chief goddess of the Neo-Hittites, she became Cybebe to the Phrygians and Cybele to the Romans. She was known as Kybele in Anatolia.

Yarris
He is a god of pestilence. A festival was held for him every autumn.

Hasamelis
He is a god who can protect travelers, possibly by causing them to be invisible.

Zashapuna
He is the chief god of the town of Kastama, held in greater regard there than the Storm-god, possibly gaining such influence through drawing lots with the other gods.

Zaliyanu
She is the wife of Zashapuna.

Zaliyanu
She is the concubine of Zashapuna.

Papaya
One of the deities who sat under the Hawthorn tree awaiting the return of Telipinus.

Istustaya
One of the deities who sat under the Hawthorn tree awaiting the return of Telipinu.

Miyatanzipa
One of the deities who sat under the Hawthorn tree awaiting the return of Telipinu. (S)he? also sat under Thippiyas tree when Hannahanna found the hunting bag.

Fate-goddesses
They were among the deities who sat under the Hawthorn tree awaiting the return of Telipinu. In one myth, they and the Mother-goddesses are missing.

Dark-goddess
One of the deities who sat under the Hawthorn tree awaiting the return of Telipinu.

Tutelary-deity, (Sumerian Lamma)
One of the deities who sat under the Hawthorn tree awaiting the return of Telipinu.

Uruzimu
A deity involved in returning the lost Storm-god of Nerik.

Hahhimas (Frost)
When the Sea-god captures the Sun-god, he takes hold of the other gods and of the land's plants and animals, paralyzing them. He is half-brother to Hasamili's brothers and spares them from his grip.

Akkadian Import Gods
Anu
See above.

Antu
Anu's female counterpart, imported to the Hitties through the Hurrians.

Ellil
He is presented with Ullikummis by the Irsirra deities and declares that the child will bring the mightiest battles and an awesome rival to the Storm-god. Later, Ea and presumably the Storm-god present before him a case against Kumarbis' for his creation of Ullikummis. He counters with Kumarbis' good record of worship and sacrifice and is in turn countered with Ea's testimony describing Ullikummis.

Hannahanna (Nintu, Mah) - the mother of all the gods.
She is associated with Gulses. After Telepinu disappears, the Storm-god complains to her. She sends him to search himself and when he gives up, she dispatches a bee, charging it to purify the god by stinging his hands and feat and wiping his eyes and feet with wax. She recommends to the Storm-god that he pay the Sea-god the bride-price for the Sea-god's daughter on her wedding to Telipinu. Apparently she also disappears in a fit of anger and while she is gone, cattle and sheep are stifled and mothers, both human and animal take no account of their children. After her anger is banished to the Dark Earth, she returns rejoicing. Another means of banishing her anger is through burning brushwood and allowing the vapor to enter her body. After Inara consulted with her, she gave her a man and land. Soon after, Inara is missing and when Hannahanna is informed thereof by the Storm-god's bee, she apparently begins a search with the help of her Female attendant a. She appears to consult with the Sun-god and the War-god, but much of the text is missing.

Upelluri (Ubelluris)
Similar to Atlas, this giant carries the world on his shoulders. The olden gods built the earth and heaven upon him though he did not notice, even when those two were separated with a cleaver. On the direction of Kumarbis' messenger Imbaluris, the Issira deities place Ullikummis on his right shoulder where the child grows. Ea interviews him, in search of Ullikummis and Upelluri admits to a small pain on his shoulder, although he can't identify which god is causing it.

Storm/Weather-god (Hurrian's Teshub, Taru, Luwian's Tarhun - 'The Conqueror'), 'The king of Kummiya', 'King of Heaven, Lord of the land of Hatti'.
He is chief among the gods and his symbol is the bull. As Teshub he has been pictured as a bearded man astride two mountains and bearing a club. He is a god of battle and victory, especially when the battle is with a foreign power. As Taru, he is the consort of Wurusemu. He was the child of Anus and Kumarbis - conceived along with Tasmisus and the Aranzahus (Tigris) river when Kumarbis bit off and swallowed Anus' phallus. He is, however, considered Ea's son in the myth of Ullikummis. He is informed by Anus of the possible exits from Kumarbis, and tries to exit through Kumarbis's 'tarnassas', causing him great pain. With the 'tarnassas' blocked, he exits through Kumarbis' 'good place'. He plots with Anus, Tasmisus, and Aranzhus to destroy Kumarbis, and apparently succeeds seizing kingship in heaven. He sent rain after the fallen Moon-god/Kashku when he fell from heaven.

Alerted to the imminent arrival of the Sun-god, who in some myths is his son, he has Tasmisus prepare a meal for their guest and listens to his report about the sudden appearance of the giant Ullikummis. He and Tasmisus then leave the kuntarra and are led to Mount Hazzi by his sister, Ishtar, where they behold the monstrous creature. He looks upon Kumarbis' son with fear and Ishtar chides him. Later, emboldened, he has Tasmisus prepare his bulls and wagon for battle, and has him call out the thunderstorms, lightning and rains. Their first battle resulted in his incomplete defeat. He dispatches Tasmisus to his wife, Hebat, to tell her that he must remain in a 'lowly place' for a term. When Tasmisus returns, he encourages the Storm-god to seek Ea in the city Abzu/Apsu and ask for the 'tablets with the words of fate' (Tablets of Destiny? 'me'?). After Ea cleaves off Ullukummis' feet, he spurs Tasmisus and the Storm-god on to battle the crippled giant. Despite the diorite man's boasting, the Storm-god presumably defeats him.

He fought with the Dragon Illuyankas in Kiskilussa and was defeated. He called the gods for aid, asking that Inaras prepare a celebration. She does so and when the dragon and his children have gorged themselves on her feast, the mortal Hupasiyas binds him with a rope. Then the Storm-god, accompanied by the gods, sets upon them and destroys them.

In another version of that myth, he looses his eyes and heart to Illuyankas after his first battle. He then marries a poor mortal woman and marries their son to Illuyankas daughter. He has the son ask for his eyes and heart. With their return, he attacks the dragon again. When his son sides with Illuyankas, the Storm-god kills them both. When his son, Telepinus, is missing he despairs and complains to the Sun-god and then to Hannahannas, who tells him to search for him himself. After searching Telepinus' city he gives up.

In other versions of this myth, it is the Storm-god who is missing. One is almost exactly the same, and in another, he journeys to the Dark Earth in his anger, and is returned with the help of his mother - here Wuruntemu/Ereshkigal/the Sun-goddess of Arinna. He sends Telipinu to recover the Sun-god who had been kidnapped by the Sea-god. The Sea-god is so intimidated that he gives Telipinu his daughter in marriage but demands a bride-price from the Storm-god. After consulting with Hannahanna, he pays the price of a thousand sheep and a thousand cattle. He notices his daughter, Inara, is missing and sends a bee to Hannahanna to have her search for her.

Seris (Serisu)
This is one of the bulls sacred to the Storm-god. In preparation for battle, the Storm-god has Tasmisus anoint his horns with oil and drive him up Mount Imgarra with Tella and the battle wagon.

Tella (Hurris)
This is another bull sacred to the Storm-god. In preparation for battle, the Storm-god has Tasmisus plate his tail with gold and drive him up Mount Imgarra with Seris and the battle wagon.

Aranzahas - The Tigris river deified.
A child of Anus and Kumarbis, he was the brother of the Storm-god and Tasmisus, spat out of Kumarbis' mouth onto Mount Kanzuras. Later he colludes with Anus and the Storm-god to destroy Kumarbis.

Tasmisus
A child of Anus and Kumarbis, he is conceived along with the Storm-god and Aranzahus. The brother of the Storm-god and Aranzahus, he was spat out of Kumarbis upon Mount Kanzuras. Later he colludes with Anus and the Storm-god to destroy Kumarbis. He serves as the Storm-god's attendant. He spies the Sun-god approaching and informs the Storm-god that this visit bodes ill. At the Storm-god's command he has a meal set up for their visitor. After the Sun-god's tale, he and the Storm-god depart and are met by Ishtar, who takes them to Mt. Hazzi near Ugarit, where they can see Ullikummis. The Storm-god has him take his bulls up Mt. Imgarra and prepare them for battle. He is also ordered to bring forth the storms, rains, winds, and lightning. After their defeat, he is dispatched by the Storm-god to Hebat, to tell her that he must remain in a 'lowly place' for a term. He returns and encourages the Storm-god to seek Ea in the city Abzu/Apsu and ask for the 'tablets with the words of fate'. After Ea cleaves off Ullukummis' feet, he spurs Tasmisus and the Storm-god on to battle the crippled giant.

Suwaliyattas
He is a warrior god and probably the brother of the Storm-god. Hebat (Hurrian name) (Hepit, Hepatu)
The matronly wife of the Storm-god. She is sometimes depicted standing on her sacred animal, the lion. After the Storm-god and Astabis' failed attacks on Ullikummis, the giant forced her out of her temple, causing her to lose communication with the gods. She frets that Ullikummis may have defeated her husband and expresses her concern to her servant Takitis, charging him to convene the assembly of the gods and bring back word of her husband. Presumably she is brought word of his defeat. Tasmisus visits her in the high watchtower, telling her that the Storm-god is consigned to a 'lowly place' for a length of time. She is the mother of Sharruma.

Wurusemu, (Wuruntemu?), 'Sun Goddess of Arrina', 'mistress of the Hatti lands, the queen of heaven and earth', 'mistress of the kings and queens of Hatti, directing the government of the King and Queen of Hatti'
This goddess is later assimilated with Hebat. She made the cedar land. She is the primary goddess in Arrina, with Taru as her consort. She is a goddess of battle and is associated with Hittite military victory. She is the mother of the Storm-god of Nerik, and thereby possibly associated with Ereshkigal. She aids in returning him from the underworld.

Sharruma (Hurrian name), 'the calf of Teshub'
The son of Teshub and Hebat, this god is symbolized by a pair of human legs, or a human head on a bull's body. He is later identified with the Weather-god of Nerik and Zippalanda.

Takitis
He is Hebat's servant. After Hebat was driven from her temple he is told of her concern for her husband and charged with convening the assembly of the gods and returning with word of her husband's fate.

Mezzullas
She is the daughter of the Storm-god and the Sun-goddess of Arinna. She has influence with her parents.

Zintuhis
She is the granddaughter of the Storm-god and the Sun-goddess of Arinna.

Telepinu(s) 'the noble god'
An agricultural god, he is the favorite and firstborn son of the Storm-god. He 'harrows and plows. He irrigates the fields and makes the crops grow. He flies into a rage and storms off, losing himself in the steppe and becoming overcome with fatigue. With his departure, fertility of the land, crops and herds disappears and famine besets man and god. Hannahannas's bee finds him, stings his hands and feet, and wipes his eyes and feet with wax, purifying him. This further infuriates him, and he wrecks further havoc with the rivers and by shattering houses and windows. Eventually, the evil and malice is removed through magic by Kamrusepas, but not before Telepinus thunders with lightning. Telepinus returns home, restoring fertility and tending to the life and vitality of the royal family. His prosperity and fertility is symbolized by a pole suspending the fleece of a sheep. In other versions of this myth, the Storm-god or the Sun-god and several other gods are missing instead. He is asked by his father to recover the Sun-god from the Sea-god, and so intimidates the Sea-god that he is given his daughter as a bride.

The Hittite Kings

KING ROYAL RELATIONSHIP MIDDLE CHRONOLOGY

Pithana early 18th c.
Anitta son of Pithana mid 18th c.
Labarna first known Hittite king 1680-1650
Hattusili I nephew/adopted son of Labarna 1650-1620
Mursili I grandson/adopted son of Hattusili I 1620-1590
Hantili assassin and brother-in-law of Mursili I 1590-1560
Zidanta I son-in-law of Hantili 1560-1550
Ammuna son of Hantili 1550-1530
Huzziya I son of Ammuna? 1530-1525
Telipinu son of Zidanta I?/brother-in-law of Ammuna 1525-1500
Tahurwaili ?
Alluwamna son-in-law of Huzziya I
Hantili II son of Alluwamna 1500-1450
Zidanta II ?
Huzziya II ?
Muwatalli I ?
Tudhaliya II son of Huzziya II? 1450-1420
Arnuwanda I son-in-law of Tudhaliya II 1420-1400
Tudhaliya III son of Arnuwanda I 1400-1380
Tudhaliya son of Tudhaliya III 1380?
Hattusili II ? ?
Suppiluliuma I son of Tudhaliya III or Hattusili II 1380-1340
Arnuwanda II son of Suppiluliuma I 1340-1339
Mursili II son of Suppiluliuma I 1339-1306
Muwatalli II son of Mursili II 1306-1282
Mursili III son of Muwatalli II 1282-1275
Hattusili III son of Mursili II 1275-1250
Tudhaliya IV son of Hattusili III 1250-1220
Karunta son of Muwatalli/cousin of Tudhaliya IV ?
Arnuwanda III son of Tudhaliya IV 1220-1215
Suppiluliuma II son of Tudhaliya IV 1215-1200

Hittite Religion

The religion of the Hittite people was concerned primarily with ensuring the favor of the local deity, whose in most cases was that of a fertility god controlling the weather. In most shrines he had a family and wife, and the note of a mother-goddess is another indication suggesting an early matrilineal society. With the unification of the country under the kings of Hattush, a centralized religion developed in which the numerous local deities were combined into a complicated pantheon. It became the kings duty to tour the country and officiate at the most important festivals, chiefly during the winter months. A king who allowed his military duties to override that of the gods, which would lead to dire consequences for the Hittite state. Mursilis II is particularly notable for his duty to religion. There exist several prayer at which he addresses the gods at a time when the nation was afflicted with serious plague or epidemic. In these prayers, he pleas that he himself has given no cause for divine anger and though his father has, he begs for the gods to relent and not to punish the innocent with the guilty.

The names of the deities reflect the ethnic diversity of the Hittite kingdom. The oldest of the gods was that of the Hattia, a god who lead the king to victory in battle. Later, especially in 13th century BC under the influence of Queen Puduhepa, Hurrian deities entered the pantheon and the leading Hurrian pair, Teshub and Hebat, were identified with their Hittite counterparts, the goddess taking a subordinate place.

The religion of the Hittites was an amalgam (mixture). It incorporated popular elements of indigenous to central Anatolia with some external influences largely of Hurrian origin. These external influences appealed particularly to the royal court and is most clearly evident in the rock-cut shrine of Yazilikaya. Water was never far from the peoples thoughts, especially in the heat of the summer, and shrines or relieves at Hattusas is most likely dedicated to the weather god Teshub and thus was the home of his cult.

About 1200 meters to the northeast of the main site of Hattusas is the famous rock shrine of Yazilikaya. There is perhaps a road or at least a Processional Way from the city to Yazilikaya. The relieves of Yazilikaya show gods and goddess wearing the horned headdress which was an originally Mesopotamian characteristic emblem of divinity. The most imposing is worn by the weather god Teshub with goddess wearing their own distinctive crowns. The tradition of depicting divinities standing on an animal is of Hurrian origin. An interpretation of Yazilikaya naturally depends on the understanding the shrines purpose, which is continually debated.

Cremation was widespread in central Anatolia. From textual sources it is known to be the funerary custom of the Hittite kings. The ordinary people of Hattusas, however, were either buried or cremated. Funerary offerings were rather smaller from a funeral feast.

Hitit

Ancient people of Asia Minor and Syria who flourished from 1600 to 1200 B.C. The Hittites, a people of Indo-European connection, were supposed to have entered Cappadocia around 1800 B.C. The Hittite empire, with its capital at Bogazköy (also called as Hattusas), was the chief power and cultural force in Western Asia from 1400 to 1200 B.C. It was a loose confederation that broke up under the invasions (c.1200 B.C.) of the Thracians, Phrygians, and Assyrians. The Neo-Hittite kingdom (c.1050-c.700 B.C.) that followed was conquered by the Assyrians. The Hittites were one of the first peoples to smelt iron successfully. They spoke an Indo-European language.

Because the Hittites were newcomers to Anatolia they were basically forced to settle where they did because they couldn't find a better place. The Hittite population would largely have consisted of peasants. There was a recognized class of craftsmen especially potters, cobblers, carpenters and smiths, and though metal principally worked was bronze, the smelting of iron was already understood and a high value was set on this metal. The medium of exchange was silver, of which the Taurus Mountains contained an abundant supply; however, it is not known how this potential source of wealth was controlled by the Hittite kings. Traces of metallurgy are found in Hattusas. Textual and material ranging from goldsmiths to shoemakers and to pottery. The Hittite economy was based on agriculture. The main crops were emmer wheat and barley. It took at least 22,000 hectares of arable land to meet the annual needs of Hattusas. Honey was a significant item in the diet. Domestic livestock consisted of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and perhaps water-buffalo. Donkeys were used as pack animals. They used also dogs as their best friends. Hittites used cuneiform script on their inscriptions. Also they used the hieroglyph form on some inscription, intended for ordinary people to understand the contents easily.

The king was supreme ruler, military commander, judicial authority and high priest. Surrounding him was a large class of nobles and dignitaries who, especially in the earlier centuries, possessed considerable power and were largely related to the king by blood. Throughout, the government of the most important cities and provinces was assigned by the king to members of his own family, each bounded to him by ties of homage and fealty. In later centuries, the same principle was extended to native vassal who became members of the royal family by marriage. The oath of fealty was a personal matter and so it was necessary, on the death of a kind, for all vassal treaties to be renewed by his successor. This feudal principle was in fact the basis of Hittite society as a whole. The nobles possessed large manors, each with its own peasants and artisans, who held their tenements on condition of payment of rent in kind or performance of appropriate services. A peasant could leave his holdings to his son; a craftsman could sell it, with the obligation passing to the buyer; but the lord had the right to choose or approve the new feudatory and invest him with the obligation.

A notable characteristic of the Hittite state is the prominent part played by women, especially the queen. Pudupepa, wife of Hattusilis III, is regularly associated with her husband in treaties an documents of the state and she even carried on correspondence with foreign kings and queens in her own right. Both she and the last queen of Suppiluliumas I remained in office until their husbands' death; thus it is inferred that the Hilife. There is some reason to believe that a matrilineal system once prevailed in Anatolia and the independent position of the Hittite queen could be a result of this. The Hittite family was of the normal patriarchal type: the father gave his daughter aqua in marriage; the bridegroom paid him the bride-price and thereafter took the bride and possessed her; if she was taken in adultery he had the right to decide her fate.

The collection of roughly 200 Hittite laws, complied in a single work in two tablets, contain laws of different periods showing a constant development towards milder and more humane punishment. The most primitive clause prescribes drawing and quartering for an agricultural offense. Other capital crimes are rape, or in case of a slave, disobedience and sorcery.

Slavery was severe. The master had the power of life and death. In most cases, it is stated that a animal was to be substituted for the man and a compensation of some sorts was paid. The spirit of Hittite law was more humane then that of the Babylonian or Assyrian legal codes.

The Hittite weakness was that they never had a reliable native population. It was solved by the settlements of deportees, who retained royal control even when put beside native communities.

They were influenced by Hatti civilization to a great extend in religion, mythology, art and culture. Although Hittites were the rulers of the country, their kings adopted Hatti names.

Although the Hittite Empire vanished thousands of years ago, it has by no means been forgotten, and its capital Hattusha has been declared a World Heritage Sitepeace treaty concluded after the Battle of Kadesh between the Hittite king Hattusili III and the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II about 3260 years ago, demonstrating to modern statesmen that international treaties are a tradition going back to the earliest civilizations.
by UNESCO. Moreover, an enlarged copy of a cuneiform tablet found here hangs in the United Nations building in New York. This tablet is a

The Roman Empire, also known as Res Publica Romana or Imperium Romanum or Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR), was one of the most important civilizations of the world history. The Roman Empire succeeded the 500 year old Roman Republic (510 BC – 1st century BC) and ruled a large territory between 27 BC – 1453 AD (approximately 5,9 million square kilometers, or 2,3 million square miles).

The Roman Empire was divided in the 4th century AD into East and West. The Western Roman Empire fell apart in the 5th century AD. The Eastern Roman Empire, known as Byzantine Empire after emperor Constantine, collapsed with the conquest of Constantinople (modern Istanbul) by the Ottomans in the 15th century AD.

The Romans knew the importance of Asia Minor because it formed a natural land-bridge between East and West in terms of trade routes, culture, agricultureAlexander the Great and many other small Anatolian kingdoms, Romans captured Asia Minor after the 2nd century BC and ruled it for many centuries. They first set their foot in Anatolia in 190 BC after defeating King Antiochus III of Seleucia in Magnesia. Then after the death of Attalos III of Pergamon Empire in 133 BC, they established the province of Asia Minor with Ephesus as its capital. and military. After

During the Pax Romana period (Roman Peace), trade and culture was increased in Asia Minor. Many ancient cities flourished and became important commercial and cultural centers in this part of the world. Roman emperors such as Augustus, Hadrian, Trajan, etc. they all traveled here and helped to the development of the province. Great Roman cities were built in Anatolia during the Roman period; Ephesus, Aphrodisias, Perge and Aspendos were some of the most important of the Roman cities in Asia Minor, amongst hundreds of others. Excellent Roman road network connected these cities with the rest of the Empire, many colossal temples and public works (libraries, fountains, suege systems etc) were built by the architects.

Also, a new religion spread in Anatolia during the reign of the Roman Empire; the Christianity. Early Christians, escaping from the Roman persecutions, settled in Antioch (modern Hatay), Iconium (modern Konya), Ephesus, Cappadocia and so on. Saint Paul made his journeys in Asia Minor in order to spread the word, finally becoming the official religion of the Eastern Roman Empire.

At its zenith, the Roman Empire included these today's countries and territories: most of Europe (England, Wales, Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Belgium, Gibraltar, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine), coastal northern Africa (Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Egypt), the Balkans (Albania, Greece, Hungary, Bosnia, Slovenia, Croatia, Bulgaria, Turkey), the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, Asia Minor, and some parts of Mesopotamia and the Middle East (Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Jordan, Israel).

The lands of Turkey are located at a point where the three continents making up the old world. Asia, Africa and Europe are closest to each other, and straddle the point where Europe and Asia meet. Geographically, the country is located in the northern half of the hemisphere at a point that is about halfway between the equator and the north pole, at a longitude of 36 degrees N to 42 degrees N and a latitude of 26 degrees E to 45 degrees E. Turkey is roughly rectangular in shape and is 1,660 kilometers wide.

Turkey's first known human inhabitants appeared in the Mediterranean region as early as 7500 BC. Although Anatolia (the western portion of Asian Turkey) is one of the oldest inhabited regions of the world, the history of Turkey as a national state began only with the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1918. This webpage is dedicated to introduce every aspect of Turkey and the historical sites in Turkey.

When discussing history it is always difficult to know from which period to actually begin. The earlier civilizations of Anatolia cannot be ignored. Some historians take the advent of the Turks into Anatolia in the 11C as the "beginning". If this were to be the case then history is limited to dating from the nomadic Turks. It has to be noted that civilizations are never built without foundations. Just like a wall made of bricks, they are all established upon former civilizations. Therefore it is quite possible to see traces of the very earliest cultures inherent in those that followed. If we want to speak about Turkey, we have to begin by going back to the very early ages as the present country is an extension and mixture of people who come from various origins.
Copyright © 1997 Serif Yenen All rights reserved. NO part of the information and materials in this web site may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including copying, recording and storing in any information storage and retrieval system without written permission from Serif Yenen Disclaimer While every effort has been made to make this web site as complete and as accurate as possible, this text should only be used as a general guide and not as an original source of information. Comments, suggestions or corrections relating to possible errors both typographical and in terms of content would be much appreciated. The author shall have neither liability nor responsibility to any person or entity with respect to any loss or damage caused, or alleged to be caused, directly or indirectly by the information contained in this web site.

There's a lot of history here. The easiest way to deal with it in a digestible format seems to be to give a chronology of the major events to begin with. We're going to use that as a framework to hang bits and pieces on later.

7500 BC	First Stone age settlements at Çatalhüyük
1900-1300 BC	Hittite Empire with Hattusas as capital, contemporary with ancient Egypt and Babylon
1250 BC	The Trojan war and the fall of Troy
1200-700 BC	Migration of Greeks to Aegean coastal regions. Establishment of the Phrygian, Ionian, Lycian, Lydian, Carian and Pamphylian Kingdoms. The East of Turkey is the home of the Urartians
700 BC	Homer is born in Izmir (Smyrna). Aegean Hellenism begins
546 BC	Cyrus the Great leads the Persians into Anatolia
334 BC	Alexander the Great drives out the Persians
130 BC	The Romans incorporate Anatolia as the province of Asia, controlled from Ephesus (Efes)
40 BC	Antioch sees the marriage of Antony and Cleopatra
47-57 AD	St. Paul spreads Christianity and a community at Antioch is established
313	Roman Empire adopts Christianity
330	Constantine lays out the boundaries of his new capital, Constantinople
527-65	Glory of Byzantium under Justinian
638-718	Muslim Arabs besiege Constantinople
1054	Greek and Roman Churches split over theology
1071-1243	Rise and rule of the Selcuk Turks in Anatolia, Konya is their capital
1096-1204	The Crusades, marking the beginning of the end for Byzantium, a fascinating period in Byzantine history
1288	Ottoman Empire appears in Bursa
1453	The fall of Constantinople - the birth of Istanbul
1520-66	Suleyman the Magnificent sits on the Ottoman throne controlling a huge and powerful empire
1682-1725	Peter the Great initiates Russo-Turkish rivalry
1854	Crimean war
1909	Abdul Hamid, the last of an unbroken line of Ottoman sultans is deposed
1914	Turkey allies with Germany in the first world war
1915	Gallipoli
1919	Ataturk leads resistance to the allied plan to carve up Turkey
1923	Foundation of the modern Republic of Turkey by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. Many things happen all at once
1938	Ataturk dies in Istanbul's Dolmabahce palace
1939-45	Turkey manages to remain neutral during the second world war
1946	Charter membership of the UN
1952	Turkey joins NATO
1960	Military coup, successive governments ineffective
1964	Associate member status of EU
1974	Cyprus crisis
1980	Kanan Evren leads military coup. 3 years of military government
1983	Turgut Ozal elected prime Minister
1985-90	Full EU membership for Turkey impeded by Cypriot issue and questions over human rights record
1991-93	Suleyman Demirel elected Prime Minister, inflation at 70%
1993-96	Demirel President, Tansu Ciller Prime Minister, Turkey joins EU Customs Union
1997-98	5 attempts at forming coalition governments, Islamic Welfare party disbanded, reforms as Virtue and is the largest single party in parliament. Military intervenes to prevent Islamicists forming governments. 75th Anniversary of the Turkish Republic (and 15th of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus) celebrated.

The Anatolian peninsula (also called Asia Minor), comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest continually inhabited regions in the world due to its location at the intersection of Asia and Europe. The earliest Neolithic settlements such as Çatalhöyük (Pottery Neolithic), Çayönü (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A to Pottery Neolithic), Nevali Cori (Pre-Pottery Neolithic B), Hacilar (Pottery Neolithic), Göbekli Tepe (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A) and Mersin are considered to be among the earliest human settlements in the world.^[9] The settlement of Troy starts in the Neolithic and continues into the Iron Age. Through recorded history, Anatolians have spoken Indo-European, Semitic and Kartvelian languages, as well as many languages of uncertain affiliation. In fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the Indo-European languages have radiated.^[10]

The first major empire in the area was that of the Hittites, from the 18th through the 13th century BCE. Subsequently, the Phrygians, an Indo-European people, achieved ascendancy until their kingdom was destroyed by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BCE.[11] The most powerful of Phrygia's successor states were Lydia, Caria and Lycia. The Lydians and Lycians spoke languages that were fundamentally Indo-European, but both languages had acquired non-Indo-European elements prior to the Hittite and Hellenic periods.

The west coast of Anatolia was meanwhile settled by the Ionians, one of the ancient Greek peoples. The entire area was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire during the 6th and 5th centuries and later fell to Alexander the Great in 334 BCE.[12] Anatolia was subsequently divided into a number of small Hellenistic kingdoms (including Bithynia, Cappadocia, Pergamum, and Pontus), all of which had succumbed to Rome by the mid-1st century BCE.[13] In 324 CE, the Roman emperor Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the new capital of the Roman Empire, renaming it New Rome (later Constantinople and Istanbul). After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it became the capital of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire).[14

he Anatolian peninsula (also called Asia Minor), comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest continually inhabited regions in the world due to its location at the intersection of Asia and Europe. The earliest Neolithic settlements such as Çatalhöyük (Pottery Neolithic), Çayönü (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A to Pottery Neolithic), Nevali Cori (Pre-Pottery Neolithic B), Hacilar (Pottery Neolithic), Göbekli Tepe (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A) and Mersin are considered to be among the earliest human settlements in the world.^[9] The settlement of Troy starts in the Neolithic and continues into the Iron Age. Through recorded history, Anatolians have spoken Indo-European, Semitic and Kartvelian languages, as well as many languages of uncertain affiliation. In fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the Indo-European languages have radiated.^[10]

ORNITHOLOGY Source: Important Bird Regions of TurkeyNatural Life Protection Foundation Ornithology is an observation sport, which maintains the identification of the nature from views of the birds. Birds, which are the best indicator of a healthful environment, are present within all kinds of life ambient. You can perform bird observation nearly every where such as desert, forest, steppe, marshes, parks within the city. Both season and time of the bird observation (ornithology) is not limited; it can be done for 365 days and 24 hours. 450 kinds of bird species are registered until today. Monitoring and understanding of birds, is the most intelligent way to observe our natural environment at the same time. Birds, which are very sensitive to the environmental conditions, can be the prior messenger of the matters such as forest loss, damage of marshes or usage of excessive agricultural medicines. Under this concept, bird observation is among the elements of detailed and healthful environment protection strategies. Total number of bird species within Turkey is equal to the bird species within whole of the Europe. One of the most important factors that our country is rich in connection with bird species is having plentiful marshes and the other one is it is on the important bird immigration roads. Bird observation stations and observation towers are established within important marshes of our country (Manyas, İzmir, Göksu Deltası etc.), and progresses in connection with ornito-tourism had performed. Important passing points of bird immigrations, seen especially during autumn and spring months within our country, Istanbul and Çanakkale Straits, Eastern Mediterranean (Adana, Hatay, Gaziantep) and North East Anatolia (Artvin, Rize, Kars). North East Anatolia region has an important potential especially in connection with preying birds. For example, in North East Anatolia, You can only face with Lyrurus mlokeesiewiczi in Georgia and in this region. Especially marshes on the bird immigration roads have important potential in connection with birds. Bird observation (ornithology) is rapidly widespread within Turkey during recent years. Currently "bird observation groups" had been established within various cities. Groups are sharing information and registries related with their performed observations under Internet environment.

AYASOFYA

The Basilica of Hagia Sophia was constructed by Roman Emperor Justinian in 537 AD. This was the largest church in the Christian world for a thousand years.Its immense dome rises nearly 200 feet above the ground and its diameter spans more than 100 feet. The mosaics covering the walls are among the most important works of art that have survived to this day of the Byzantine era.

Large round buildings had been successfully covered by domes before, but Hagia Sophia had a rectangular floor plan, and covering a large rectangular structure by a huge central dome was being tried for the first time in history. The dome collapsed and repaired many times.

The Ottomans converted the basilica to a mosque in the 15 th century after the conquest of Istanbul. Recognizing its historic and universal importance, the Turkish Government turned it into a museum in 1935

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SULTANAHMET MOSQUE

Sultanahmet Mosque is the most famous monument in both the Turkish and the Islamic worlds. It was built in the classic Turkish architectural style between 1609-1616 by the architect Mehmet. The building is more familiarly known as the Blue Mosque because of its magnificent interior paneling of more than 20,000 blue and white Iznik tiles.

The inside is a single immense space into which the light pours from 260 windows. The dome 141 feet high, is supported by four enormous circular pillars 16 feet in diameter and are known as elephant feet. As it is located across Hagia Sophia, the mosque was designed to be as large and as magnificent as this Byzantine structure.

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TOPKAPI PALACE

Topkapi Palace is certainly the most important historical site to be visited in Istanbul. It is one of the most frequently visited museums of Europe and is the most visited one in Turkey. The Palace served as the administrative center of the Ottoman Empire for nearly 400 years between the 15th and 19th centuries. Its principal parts were finished in 1478, then altered and enlarged by new additions in the reign of each succeeding sultan. The Palace was abandoned in 1855 when Sultan Abdülmecit I, 31st Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, moved to the new Palace of Dolmabahçe. In 1924, it was turned into a museum upon the orders of Atatürk.

Palace is a complex of buildings spread out over one of the seven hills of Istanbul. It consists of courtyards serving different purposes which are separated from each other by monumental gates. Pavilions, each used for different purpose, surround these courtyards. The total area of the Palace is twice the area of Vatican and half of Monaco in size.

Besides being the official residence of the Sultan, the Topkapi Palace served as the headquarters of the government. It also housed the state treasury and the archives. The mint, as well as the highest educational institution were located on the Palace grounds.

On exhibitions are the imperial collections of crystal, silver and Chinese porcelain; imperial handmade costumes worn by the sultans and their families, the famous jewels of the treasury; the richest collection of clocks in the world; the sacred relics of Islam including the swords of Muhammed, his bow and his mantle; priceless collection of miniatures and many other priceless objects. One of the largest diamonds in the world, the Spoonseller Diamond, is displayed in a special showcase in the hall. The rooms are exquisitely decorated and tiled.

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DOLMABAHÇE PALACE

Dolmabahçe Palace, built in the mid-19th century by Sultan Abdülmecit 1, stretches for 600 meters along the European shore of the Bosphorus. The palace has survived intact with its original decorations, furniture, silk carpets, curtains and everything else. It is said that 14 tons of gold and 40 tons of silver were used for the decoration of the palace.

The palace contains 285 rooms, 43 salons and six baths. Its walls and ceilings are covered with paintings by the famous artists of that age. Rare handmade art objects from Europe and the Far East decorate every room in the palace. The ballroom is the largest of its kind in the world. A 4.5 ton giant-sized crystal chandelier with 750 bulbs hangs from the 120 feet high dome. The floors are parquet, of exceptional quality and are laid with high-quality silk carpets, hand-woven in the Imperial Factory of Hereke.

Atatürk used to stay in this palace when he visited Istanbul. He died here in 1938. All the clocks in the palace were stopped at 9:05 am, the time of his death, in memory of this great Türk.

The Palace which is a museum today is open on certain days of the week, and it is one of those historic places in Istanbul that must be visited.

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KARIYE MUSEUM ( The Chora Church )

The Kariye Museum is, after Hagia Sophia, the most important Byzantine monument in Istanbul. The existing building was built towards the end of the 11th century and dedicated to Christ the Savior.

After the Turkish conquest, the church remained deserted for a time, and was turned into a mosque in 1511 by addition of a minaret. It became a museum in 1948 and its frescoes were cleaned and restored by the American Institute of Byzantine Research.

The walls are decorated with superb 14th century mosaics, illustrating scenes from the life of Christ and the Virgin Mary. These are the finest masterpieces of Christian religious art to be found anywhere in the world. Paintings, rocks and architectural designs seen in the background make the pictures three-dimensional. The scenes are made with special care for them to look daily, lively and ordinary. The scenes are enriched with explicating stories near them.

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ELSEWHERE IN TURKEY

TROY

Ancient city of Troy is located 30 km south west of Çanakkale province in the Marmara Region of Turkey. This is one of the most important historical cities of Anatolia. Archeological excavations have revealed nine separate periods of settlement at this site, including ruins of city walls, house foundations, a temple and a theater. The earliest settlement dates from five thousand years ago and the last coincided with the late Roman period. Famous Trojan wars, depicted in Homer’s epic Iliad took place here at about 1200 BC. A symbolic wooden horse at this site commemorates this legendary war.

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EPHESUS

The ruins of Ephesus is one of the world’s greatest archaeological sites. It is located 75 km south of Izmir.In Hellenistic times, Ephesus became the most densely populated city in Anatolia with a population of more than 200 000. The city reached the peak of its glory under the Roman rule and became a very important centre of trade and commerce. A majority of the monuments that exist now date to that period. It was also the leading political and intellectual centre, with the second school of philosophy in the Aegean. The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

Ephesus also emerged as one of the main centers of early Christianity. St. Paul remained in the city for three years during his third missionary journey (53-57).The Apostle John also came to Ephesus to live and was finally buried here. Ephesus was one of the Seven Churches mentioned in his book of Revelation.Tradition has it that St.John brought Virgin Mary to Ephesus after Christ’s crucifixion and that she lived and died in a small wooden house located about three miles away in the forested mountain above Ephesus at the age of 101. In the year 431 the Third Ecumenical Council was held in the Basilica of the Virgin Mary in Ephesus. In the following century, Emperor Justinian(527-565) built a massive church at the spot where St John was believed to have been buried. It became an important site of pilgrimage throughout the Middle Ages.

The city ruins include the agora, theater, gymnasium, stadium, Church of the Virgin Mary, Temple of Serapis, Temple of Hadrian, Fountain of Trajan, Scholasticia Baths, Temple of Domitian and terrace houses that once belonged to rich Ephesians, as well as the Celsus Library. The Cathedral of St. John is on the Ayasuluk hill above the city.

The Celsus Library (shown in the picture) is the most impressive building of them all. According to inscriptions in Latin and Greek on the wings of the front steps, the Library was erected in AD 110 by the Consul G.J.Aquila for his father, G.J.Celsus Polemaeanus, formerly Roman Consul and governor of the Asian province.The library was completed in AD 135 by his heirs. Its façade was two-tiered; the interior consisted of a single large hall, measuring 10x16 m, comprising the Celsus library itself. The burial chamber under the floor contains the marble sarcophagus of Celsus in an excellent state of preservation.

The reading room destroyed in a fire in the second half of the 3rd century, but the façade did not suffer damage. For a time, the library was left filled with the resulting debris. About AD 400, the area in front of the building was converted into a pool. The façade served a decorative purpose, with its beautiful silhouette mirrored in the water.

The monumental façade as it stands today is the result of restoration work begun in the 1970s, completed and the whole opened to the public in 1978.

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APHRODISIAS

The impressive remains of this once-splendid city are situated on a high plateau, within Aydin Province. As its name suggests, Aphrodisias was named after Aphrodite, a goddess of nature, love and fertility and was the site of one of her most famous sanctuaries.

Although the history of Aphrodisias stretches farther back in time, it rose to prominence in the first century BC and enjoyed a long period of prosperity. Besides being a significant religious site, it was also a cultural and intellectul center to which students and scholars flocked from all over the ancient Hellenistic world. With an excellent marble supply, perhaps the finest available anywhere, the city became the center of a school of sculpture that flourished for a period of six hundred years.Many of its marvelous works of art are now housed in the local museum.

The Temple of Aphrodite was the focal point of the city in antiquity, as it still is today with its fourteen standing columns. The stadium, located in the northern end of the city, is probably the best preserved structure of this type in the Mediterranean. It could accommodate as many as 30,000 people. The theater, odeon (concert-hall), Bishop’s Palace, Baths of Hadrian are among other ruins.

East of the temple, one of the most attractive landmarks of Aphrodisias is a decorative gateway (in the picture) datable to the middle of the second century. It consisted of four rows of four columns and its main access was from the east, with a front row of spirally-fluted Corinthian columns facing a main north-south street.Its sixteen columns have been repaired and re-erected and upper portions partly replaced.

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PERGAMON

Pergamon (or Pergamum), once a great center of culture, survives as one of Turkey’s finest archeological sites. It is located 100 km north of Izmir.The city experienced its golden age until the end of the 3rd century AD during Hellenistic and Roman times. In the Acropolis, above the modern town, are the remains of the library, a steep and impressive theatre, the temples of Trajan and Dionysos, the monumental Altar of Zeus, the sanctuary of Demeter, a gymnasium and the Agora. The Asclepion, located to the southwest of the lower city, was a medical center dedicated to the god of health, Asclepios. Patients were treated with water and mud baths, with massages and with medicinal herbs. The center also had a small theather, a library, a sacred fountain, temples as well as two meeting rooms and lavatories for women and for men.

The site of Pergamon was first excavated by the German archaeologists between 1878 and 1886. It was during this time that the magnificient reliefs of the Altar of Zeus were discovered and carried to Berlin and now displayed in Berlin Museum.

Ancient authors tell us that the Pergamon library at one time contained 200 000 volumes. Mark Anthony carted them off to Egypt as a gift for Cleopatra, to replace the ones that had been lost when the Alexandrian library was burned during Caesar’s campaign. In the middle of the library’s main reading room is the podium on which there stood at one time the 3.5 meter high statue of Athena that is now in the Berlin Museum.

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CAPPADOCIA

The ancient region of Cappadocia lies in Central Anatolia between the cities of Nevsehir, Kayseri and Nigde. Three million years ago, violent eruptions of the nearby volcanoes covered the surrounding plateau with a deep layer of solidified mud, ash and lava. The winds, rivers and rains have eroded this soft volcanic rock into hundreds of strangely shaped pillars, cones and fairy chimneys, creating a vast outdoor museum of stone sculptures in an incredible variety of shapes, layering, textures and colors.

Since the most ancient of times, men have been carving dwellings in this soft rock; the early Christians made countless cave churches, chapels and monasteries. There are more than 200 churches in Capadocia scattered through the valleys, with their impressive frescoes and art works.

The most amazing speciality of Cappadocia is the underground cities which are still being discovered. The ones in Kaymakli and in Derinkuyu are the most famous ones. These cities with 8-9 floors underground have been completely carved in volcanic tuff and were used by Christians as places to retreat to and live in until danger from their enemies had passed. The narrow tunnels which could be blocked by millstones at times of escape, the ventilation systems, and the hidden rooms of these cities show a perfect planning and construction. But the absence of inscriptions and decorations of any kind makes it difficult for the art historians to determine the dates of construction.

The horses and the stud farms of Cappadocia have been famous throughout history. The word Cappadocia comes from the word “Catpaducia” meaning “the land of beautiful horses”.

MEVLEVI CONVENT AND MUSEUM

MEVLEVI CONVENT AND MUSEUM

Founder of the Mevlevi Order known in the West as the Whirling Dervishes, Muhammed Celaleddin lived in Konya from 1228 until his death in 1273. He was given the name Mevlana (Our High Master) by his followers.

The nearly 6500 m2 land, on which the convent lies, used to be a rose garden belonging to Seljuk Sultan Alaaddin Keykubat. He gave the area to Mevlana’s father, Bahaddin Veled. as a gift. Bahaddin Veled was buried here in accordance with his will. From that day on, this place became a popular visiting spot. The building of the tomb began in 1274, only after the burial of Mevlana beside his father. In 1396, the tomb was covered by a cone shaped dome decorated by exquisite turquiose tiles.

The building has gone through many modifications during different periods in history and it has turned into a collection of buildings, an institution. In 1926, the Mevlana Convent opened as a museum. The artifacts presented to the convent throughout the centuries are on display. The most interesting section of the museum is under the green dome where the sarcophagi of Mevlana and his son, Sultan Veled, stand. The museum contains 65 sarcophagi of the members of Mevlana’s family and his followers. On display are hand-written copiess of the sayings and books about Mevlana and Mevlevi order, musical instruments, metal glass and wooden objects, carpets and kilims. In the former dervish cells, the garments of the order are exhibited.

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PAMUKKALE

This sight of spectacular beauty is located in the inner Aegean region. The terraces over 300 feet in height composed of layers of the accumulated limestone sediment have been gradually formed in the course of the ages. For thousands of years a deep underground spring on the hills above has been pouring out streams of hot, mineral-saturated water.As the water has flowed down the mountainside, the water’s rich mineral content has coated them in a smooth layer of white calcareous rock. Since these white slopes resemble castles when observed from the plain, the area is called Pamukkale which means cotton castle in Turkish. Several Roman emperors came to bathe in these thermal pools. The area is still one of the leading hot springs in Turkey

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SAFRANBOLU

Safranbolu is a small town in the Western Black Sea Region. Some of the most beautiful traditional old homes, unique in Turkey for their outstanding design and construction are found here. Some of them have been restored and are now used as hotels

nemrut

Antiochos I, ruler of the Commagene Kingdom in the first century BC, built himself this funeral monument on top of Mount Nemrut in eastern Turkey. It consists of a tumulus and a dozen gigantic statues representing Antiochus I, eagles, lions and ancient gods. Lion and eagle statues were used as the guardians. The tumulus is 50 m high and 150 m. in diameter. Although the inscriptions at the back of the thrones on east and west terraces record that Antiochos I had chosen the hierothesion as his sacred last resting place or a place where his body will sleep for endless eternity, sysmic research did not show any grave chamber or large cavity in the tumulus. The average height of the statues is 26-33 feet. These are made of stone, too heavy and large to be carried to the muesum and remain where they were originally erected. Time has inflicted heavy damage on the sculptures- their bodies sit with their beautifully carved heads at their feet.

şanlıurfa

This province in southeast Turkey is known as the “city of Prophets”, because the Prophets Job, Abraham and Suayb, whose names are mentioned in the holy books and who lived before the emergence of the three monotheistic religions- Judaism, Christianity and Islam – resided here. According to Muslim tradition, Prophet Abraham was born in a cave on the northern side of Sanli Urfa castle. Today the cave is a pilgrimage site.

There is a fish lake in the center of Sanli Urfa filled with sacred fish and surrounded by Halil Rahman Mosque. According to legends, Abraham believed in a single god and tried to spread this belief. For his refusal to follow the worship of idols, Abraham was condemned to be burned.The cruel King Nimrod had Abraham launched from a catapult from the city’s citadel to fall into a pile of burning wood. God intervened and turned the fire into water and the wood into fish, which make up water and fish in the pool.

ISTANBUL, SAFRANBOLU, MT.NEMRUT, TROY, PAMUKKALE AND CAPPADOCIA ARE REGISTERED ON THE WORLD HERITAGE LIST TO HELP PRESERVE THEM FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS.

FAMOUS ISLAMIC RELICS

The Islamic sacred relics were brought to Istanbul after the seizure of the Hejaz, grew in number and were for centuries preserved with great care. Although the Islamic sacred relics were at the beginning, considered as the material remains inherited from the Prophet Muhammad, the first four caliphs and the companions of the Prophet, the contents of these remains expanded to include gifts presented to Muslim holy places.The number of relics originating in the Prophet's time are very few.

With the entry of Selim the First into Cairo, as a result of the Egyptian Campaign (1517), the territories belonging to the Mamluks, and those under their control, passed on to the Ottomans. The Emirate of Mecca, under the control of the Mamluks, recognized Ottoman sovereignty. The Hejaz thus fell into the hands of the Ottomans, under the same status as that enjoyed during the Mamluk rule.Known as the "Emir of Mecca", Abu Nümey, came to Cairo on the third or fifth of July 1517, accompanied by the notables of Mecca, the Islamic sacred relics and the key to the Kaaba. Selim I sent the Islamic sacred relics, which had been presented to him, to Istanbul.

The transfer of the Islamic sacred relics to Istanbul was not limited to the time of Yavuz Sultan Selim (1512-1520). Over the centuries, the number of items categorized as Islamic sacred relics gradually increased; collections were enriched until the collapse of the Ottoman Empire by the addition of new relics brought to Istanbul. Some of the Islamic sacred relics, which had been kept in the Prophet's Tomb, in mosques in different cities, in tombs and in the hands of individuals, were transferred to Istanbul when deemed appropriate. Precious Qur'ans and other valuable objects, which the Ottoman sultans and other leading figures of the Islamic world were presented with as gifts, were also recognized as sacred relics.

At the present time, the most well known relics, constituting a voluminous collection, are the "Hirka-i Serif" or "Hirka-i Saadet" (mantle of the Prophet) and the "Sancak-i Serif" (the flag of the Prophet)

Among them, the "Hirka-i Saadet" is a black woolen jacket, measuring 124 cm, with wide sleeves and a cream-colored wool lining. An examination by the textile experts of the Topkapi Palace has concluded that this cloth is a product of the Prophet's time. The Hirka-i Saadet was brought to Istanbul after the Mongolian invasion in 1258. The Has Oda, presumably built by Fatih Sultan Mehmed, was allocated for the keeping of Islamic sacred relics by Yavuz Sultan Selim. The most prestigious of the relics being the jacket, this room was called the "Hirka-i Saadet Dairesi".

Among other important relics, the following can be found: a piece of the Prophet Muhammad's tooth, broken off during the battle of Uhud; hairs of the Prophet Muhammad's beard; six footprints on stone and brick believed to belong to the Prophet; the black flag of the Prophet Muhammad; the Rod of the Prophet Moses; the Saucepan of the Prophet Abraham carved from a bluish piece of stone; letters sent by the Prophet Muhammad to certain rulers and individuals to invite them to Islam; Qur'anic verses written on leather, presumably by early scribes; an empty broken bottle, green in colour which was believed to be used for washing the body of the Prophet after his death.; the prayer mat of Hazreti Fatma; the key and locks of the Kaaba; swords which belonged to Prophet David, Prophet Muhammad, the first four caliphs and the companions and disciples of the Prophet. There are also countless Qur'ans in the Hirka-i Saadet Hall. Among them is one written on gazelle leather is considered to correspond to the period of Caliph Osman's rule.

The Ottoman Sultans held the sacred relics with great care. The sultans frequently visited the Hirka-i Saadet, particulary on Fridays and holy nights. During military campaigns and on special days, the sultans used to visit the Hirka-i Saadet Hall first, perform the salat and pray here. On accession to the throne, the new sultan would first visit this hall, perform two rakats of salat, pray and accept the oath of allegiance from the functionaries of the royal ward, and then go out to participate in the ceremony. From the 18th century on, these visits, which held a special status within the protocol of the Ottoman state, were regularly paid on the fifteenth day of the month of Ramadan, after the noon prayer.

After the abolition of the sultanate on 1 November 1922, both the custom of visiting the Hirka-i Saadet as well as the recitation of the Qur'an in the Hirka-i Saadet Hall day and night came to a halt. When the Topkapi Palace was converted into a museum on 3 April 1924 following the proclamation of the Republic, the Has Oda was closed to the public until 1962, after which date the hall became a tourist sight, devoid of spiritual meaning.

turkey

A country of sun and history, Turkey is located where the three continents making up the old world, Asia, Africa and Europe are closest to each other and straddle the point where Europe and Asia meet.

Because of its geographical location, the mainland, Anatolia, has witnessed the mass migration of diverse peoples shaping the course of history. The home to countless civilisations, Anatolia has developed a unique synthesis of cultures, each with its own distinct identity, yet each linked to its predecessors through insoluble treads.

We organized our site so that you can discover each of seven different geographical regions individually or you can check out the activities you might be interested during your visit to Turkey.